cBeyond Contextualization

Beyond Contextualization

158

165

From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill

Reﬁning Our Religious Sensibility

Articles

69 Crossing Religious and Cultural Frontiers: Rethinking Mission as Inreligionisation

Kang-San Tan

79 Making Disciples, Contextualization, and Inreligionization: Some Reections

Harold A. Netland

87 Udayanacharya’s

Samv da

and the Dialogue of Traditions: a Model of Inreligionization

Brainerd Prince

99 The Faith of Fatima: A Case Study of Muslim Followers of Jesus Anna Travis

109 What Gets “Converted”? Reections on Language and Images of Religious Conversion

Darren Duerksen

117 Dual Religious Belonging as a Contextualised Faith? Kang-San Tan

127 The Life and Thought of R. C. Das: His Theology of Interreligious (Hindu-Christian) Relations

H. L. Richard

135 Ceremonialism: Ritual as a Pathway for Relationship Elizabeth L. Walker

143 A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas: Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati

(b.1952)

Herbert Hoefer

Books and Missiology

158 Supracultural Gospel: Bridging East and West 160 South Asia’s Christians: Between Hindu and Muslim

163 Insider Church: Ekklesia and the Insider Paradigm

In Others’ Words

April–June 2019

The Journal

of the

International Society for

Frontier Missiology

April–December 2022

Evangelical Missiological Society Annual Conference

October 13–14, 2023

In-person and virtual

Dallas eological Seminary

(note new location)

EMS Plenary Speakers: Evelyn Hibbert, John Cheong, Henri Aoun

Learn more about the plenary speakers on the website, emsweb.org/conferences/annual/.

Two days

Multiple Tracks

Many sessions each

ISFM Plenary Speaker:

Dr. Paul Cornelius, President, William Carey Int’l University

“Rescuing the Mind from Academics:

A South Asian Perspective on Education

for Contemporary Engagement”

The intersection of education and mission produces a maze of models and practices.

This year’s EMS/ISFM conference will oer dierent perspectives from the academy,

the church and the eld practitioner.

The ISFM track of presentations will focus particularly on the formative principles, structures,

and curricula required for eective service in frontier contexts.

ISFM

Conference details at www.emsweb.org • Online or in person • Registration is open

Program available

online for all tracks

and sessions

is a quarterly journal dedicated to the

frontiers of mission. Since 1984, the

IJ FM

has been exploring issues, ideas,

and insights related to ﬁ nishing the

remaining task of world evangelization

among those peoples yet to see a

signiﬁ cant movement to Christ. Mission

professors, ﬁ eld missionaries, mission

mobilizers, agency executives, and

researchers alike look to the IJFM

for the latest thinking in frontier

missiology.

SUBSCRIBE NOW!

@ www.ijfm.org

is an award winning, bi-monthly magazine, with top-tier missions

practitioners and missiologists contributing to the latest and greatest

movements of Christ around the world. If you want to hear stories from

the ﬁ eld, cutting-edge thinking and practices, then this is a relevant

and engaging chronicle for every level of missions-minded individual.

SUBSCRIBE NOW!

@ www.missionfrontiers.org

The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those

of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology, or the society’s

executive committee.

Editor’s Desk

April–December 2022 Volume 39:2–4

Editor

Brad Gill

Managerial Assistant

Andy Bettencourt

Copy Editing and Layout

Elizabeth Gill, Marjorie Clark

Subscriptions and Distribution

Lois Carey, Laurie Rosema

Publisher

Frontier Mission Fellowship

2022 ISFM Executive Committee

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Web Site

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Editorial continued on p. 68

Reﬁning Our Religious Sensibility

ou may have noticed that this journal is trying to raise our religious

consciousness. We live in a secular age, one in which religious phenomena

are considered marginal, epiphenomenal, not at the core of what moves

people. But religious aﬃnities and dispositions can lie silent and deep, hidden under

a cosmopolitan sameness, creating barriers for the gospel.

Our last two

IJFM installments have addressed this interreligious challenge. IJFM

38:3–4 was a compendium of the 2021 RDW Lectureship, with historical reﬂections

on the innovative Christian-Buddhist ministry of Karl Reichelt among Chinese

Buddhist monks. en came issue 39:1 which focused on the “hermeneutical space”

created in these interreligious encounters, especially those turning to Christ in a

Buddhist religious world. at issue introduced Dr. Kang-San Tan’s concept of

“inreligionization,” which served as his plenary address at EMS/ISFM 2021.

is current issue, 39:2–4, continues the same focus. It oﬀers formal responses to

Tan’s interreligious proposals delivered at the 2023 Winter Lectureship, “Beyond

Contextualization: Crossing Religious and Cultural Boundaries.” is very recent

event certainly widened our religious sensibilities, pressing us beyond mere theo-

retical engagement to a more grounded appreciation of the way people encounter

Christ across religious and cultural divides. e reader will ﬁnd these mature assess-

ments of how and why movements to Christ may or may not emerge amidst Asia’s

pluralistic world of Buddhist, Muslim, and Hindu.

No one, not even Dr. Tan, seems beholden to the actual neologism in inreligion-

ization, but further probing of the concept itself seemed a fruitful course. Tan’s

presentations bookended the symposium, with the introduction of his concept of

“inreligionization” in the opening lecture (p. 69) and then a closing perspective

on dual religious belonging (p. 117). All presentations by the formal respondents

in this symposium—Harold Netland, Brainerd Prince, Anna Travis, and Darren

Duerksen—are published here. But this issue falls short of a full compendium, with

only a sample of the short responses to the diﬀerent presentations. Neither were the

panel interactions transcribed, where the adept moderator, Kevin Higgins, linked

insights from across a wide ﬁeld of Muslim, Buddhist, and Hindu religious worlds.

We have added three other articles which illustrate a religious sensibility to the

Hindu world. H. L. Richard provides a vivid historical example of interreligious

engagement from the life of R. C. Das (p. 127). Elizabeth Walker oﬀers a practical

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

68 From the Editor’s Desk, Who We Are

The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed

to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consulta-

tion on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:

 promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders;

 cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology;

 highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions;

 encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies;

 foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and

 advocate “A Church for Every People.”

Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go, yet beyond which we may not be able to see

clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the

reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specically concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and

insights related to the glorication of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and

from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)

Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, eld mission-

aries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in

frontier missiology.

orientation to the ceremonial life of

Hindu friends (p. 135), and Herb

Hoeﬀer points to the signiﬁcance of

poetry and song in the spiritual devo-

tion

(bhakti) of Swami Bharati, a Hindu

follower of Jesus (p. 143).

Let me suggest how this religious sen-

sibility ﬁts into all that’s happening in

frontier mission today.

I attended a recent conference where

I listened to some of the most astute

leaders involved in the growth of dis-

ciple making movements today. I was

struck by their description of the social

dynamics of these movements. eir

analysis was beyond mere quantiﬁca-

tion, for they seemed ready and willing

to use social network analysis and diﬀu-

sion theory. But I noted hardly a refer-

ence to cultural or religious distinctives

across this analysis. A religious sensibil-

ity played a minor role, if any. at’s a

precipitous judgment, I confess, but the

grid seemed to favor social data.

No doubt these movements are rippling

through an unreached social landscape

in wonderful ways. But one wonders

if a shallow religious sensibility may

allow certain aﬃnities—like the more

“high-identity” religious populations—

to remain hidden at the edges of these

same movements. One wonders whether

further innovation would emerge where

there is an astute religious sensibility.

inking biblically for a ﬁnal moment,

I’m impressed that the apostle Paul

always appeared to have a religious sen-

sibility. He was constantly interacting

with the cosmopolitan religious per-

spectives of his Greco-Roman world. It

wasn’t just a social landscape, nor simply

a cross-cultural challenge. In particular,

he was keenly aware of the signiﬁcance

of religious aﬃnities, rituals, and insti-

tutions. is point seems clear with-

out a full biblical review of Jew/Greek/

barbarian, the “strong” and the “weak,”

the cultic participation in eating meat, the

keeping of sacred days, or the “elemental

principles of the world.” Paul knew that

religious realities tended to divide, and

he was sensitive to the boundaries of dif-

ferent religious identities at the edges of

that ﬁrst-century Christward movement.

So, the

IJFM is grateful for this recent

lectureship’s venture “beyond contex-

tualization,” and for the further exami-

nation of Kang-San Tan’s concept of

inreligionization. It’s been a privilege

to edit and publish these contributions.

May they sharpen our interreligious

aptitude, especially as we endeavor to see

the power of the gospel emerge in the

religious complexities of Asia.

e ISFM/EMS 2023 is happening this

October 13–14, 2023 (see ad on page 65).

Our plenary speaker, Paul Cornelius

(Pres., William Carey Int’l University),

and the ten breakout sessions will address

vital aspects of education and forma-

tion in frontier mission. e meeting is

a hybrid event, both virtual and on-site

at our new venue, Dallas eological

Seminary. Hope to see you there.

In Him,

Brad Gill

Senior Editor, IJFM

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 69

Kang-San Tan (MA, Old Testament,

Regent College; DMin, Missiology,

Trinity Evangelical Divinity School;

PhD, eology of Religions, University

of Aberdeen) serves as General Director

of BMS World Mission. He has served

with the WEA Mission Commission

and the Lausanne eology Work-

ing Group. He is the co-author of the

recent book, Humble Conﬁdence:

A Model for Interfaith Apologetics

(IVP Academic, 2020).

Beyond Contextualisation

hile the problem of non-Christian religions has been heightened

more recently in the West—especially since the 1960s with the

rise of pluralism as a celebrated virtue—in Asia the problem of

religious plurality has been a fact of life since the ﬁrst millennium.

But today

this challenge has intensiﬁed for the church in Asia as it faces a revitalization of

other religions, witnesses ethnic violence across religious divides, and encoun-

ters a growing theological relativism—a clear sign of a postmodern context.

ese religious dynamics call for a fresh Asian perspective on contemporary

interreligious communication, and it has prompted me to frame “inreligionisa-

tion” as a contemporary mission approach towards world religions.

I am thankful for this opportunity to address this lectureship, and I look

forward to engaging in conversation with diﬀerent speakers and partici-

pants on this interreligious challenge we face in Asia. Indeed, missiologists

and theologians have been highlighting this challenge for some time. In his

book

Transforming Mission, David Bosch highlights two crucial theological

issues facing the church: (1) Christianity’s relationship to secular worldviews

and (2) Christianity’s relationship to other religions.

For Gerhard Anderson,

the theology of religions is

the theological issue for Christian mission in the

twenty-ﬁrst century—“No issue in missiology is more important, more diﬃ-

cult, more controversial, and more divisive for the days ahead than the theology

of religions.”

Other theologians such as Gavin D’Costa, Jacques Dupuis, Paul

Knitter and Harold Netland have also identiﬁed the challenge of religions as

an important theological issue to be explored.

Gavin D’Costa, Professor of Catholic eology at University of Bristol, writing

from the British context, introduces the signiﬁcance of Christian engagements

with religions as follows:

[It] . . . is difcult to think of a more important question facing Christianity in

the twenty-rst century. Christianity’s very existence in part depends on how it

relates to the world religions. This is a matter of survival and more importantly

Crossing Religious and Cultural Frontiers:

Rethinking Mission as Inreligionisation

by Kang-San Tan

Editor’s Note: is article was originally presented at the 2023 Ralph D. Winter

Lectureship under the theme, “Beyond Contextualization: Crossing Religious and Cul-

tural Boundaries.”

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

70 Crossing Religious and Cultural Frontiers: Rethinking Mission as Inreligionisation

is does not mean that Christians accept those religions as

salviﬁc within themselves without Jesus. Just as many East

Asians religions are open to multiple religious identities,

might it then be possible for Evangelicals from

Asian religious traditions to construct Chris-

tian religious identities from a greater

range of resources? rough both insider

and outsider perspectives, participant

observations, and contextualisation, it

might be possible to mediate and con-

struct new and hybrid religious iden-

tities. is perspective would indicate

that the gospel has transforming power

not only for the religious other, but for

Christians as well.

I expect diﬀerent theological positions would

yield diﬀerent results as Christians approach mission as in-

religionisation. I will argue that post conservative Evangeli-

cal theology is best able to sustain inreligionisation, namely,

through its demonstration of the following characteristics:

1. A discontent with the traditional ties of evangelical

theology to the “evangelical Enlightenment,” and espe-

cially its discontent towards “common sense realism.” A

rejection of the “wooden” approach to Scripture, in favor

of regarding it as “Spirit-inspired realistic narrative.”

2. A more open view of God, in which God limits himself

and enters into a genuine responsive relationship with

humans, taking their pain and suﬀering into himself.

God is a risk taker, not one who controls everything so

that nothing contrary to his desires can occur.

3. An acceptance, rather than a rejection, of the realm of

nature. Nature, although fallen, is never abandoned by

grace, but rather is still pervaded by it.

4. A hope for a near-universal access to God's grace unto

salvation. God has not left himself without a witness in

all cultures, suﬃcient to bring people to salvation if they

earnestly seek it.

5. An emphasis in Christology on the humanity of Jesus,

while still retaining belief in the divinity of Christ. is

emphasis would be thought of more in relational than

in substance and person categories.

6. A more synergistic understanding of the divine and

human in salvation. ese theologians are, overall, more

characteristically Arminian than Calvinistic.

7. A rejection of triumphalism with respect to theological

truth-claims. Post conservatives are critical of any pre-

sumption of epistemological certainty and dogmatic

theological systems.

a matter of plausibility: how do Christians relate to their

tradition, which so many think has related so negatively to

the world religions? The questions are not simply theological

and pastoral—can a non-Christian be saved?, but also

very practical and political— how should Christians

relate to the religiously pluralist public square?

Should they join with Muslims, for example,

to campaign for religious schools?

e ﬁeld of theology of religions is a

fairly new theological discipline, started

in the early 1960s. Although the dis-

cipline may be emerging, the issues on

Christianity’s relationship with other

religions are not new. In the early twen-

tieth century, John Farquhar authored an

inﬂuential publication on fulﬁlment theol-

ogy entitled

e Crown of Hinduism (1913), in

which he argued that Christ (not Christianity) was

the crown of Hinduism.

at Hinduism as a religion is to

be included in the plan of God’s salvation signalled a change

in attitude toward non-Christian religions. What had been

negatively termed “pagan religion” was more positively desig-

nated as “fulﬁllment of Christianity.” In another publication,

the German liberal thinker, Ernst Troeltsch, published an es-

say, “e Place of Christianity Among the World Religions,”

and William Hocking wrote his widely read

Rethinking Mis-

sions

a few years later, in 1932. eir inﬂuence was to chal-

lenge Christianity’s claim of special religious status, that it

“should be seen as just one among many equally salviﬁc paths

to the divine reality.”

Previously, some Christian theology of religions (particularly

exclusivism) had a tendency to treat non-Christian religions

as tight, separate systems, but more Asian theologians are ar-

guing that such strict and abstract boundaries do not reﬂect

the actual situation in Asia, where the cross fertilization of

religious beliefs is a daily faith experience. In a context where

identities are hyphenated, do we have theological models that

reﬂect these intersections of faiths? Instead of a total rejection

of past faiths, will it be possible to promote both traditions

resulting in Chinese-British churches, Christian-Malay wor-

ship, and Christian-Buddhist festivals?

Post Conservative Evangelical Theology

Mission as inreligionisation will be diﬃcult to sustain if one

approaches other religions as false and with no capacity for

truth. If so, the goal of mission would be to defeat and replace

world faiths with Christianity. However, if one believes that

God has ordained Christianity as the true faith, but that all

religions are a means of grace and potentially have bridges for

the Christian gospel, then inreligionisation could be a fruit-

ful mission approach for people of all faiths to follow Jesus.

How should

Christians relate to

the religiously pluralist

public square?

(Gavin D'Costa)

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Kang-San Tan 71

Religion as a Contested Term?

Having a universal deﬁnition of religion can be problematic

because—like culture and society—religion is a modern term

that may not ﬁt neatly into the dynamic and changing reli-

gious realities of our global cosmopolitan world.

Assuming

that the religions of the world are multifaceted and respon-

sive to changing contexts, certain questions arise: What is our

understanding of the term “religion”? Is religion a subset of

culture? Is there something essential in religion?

e earlier essentialist deﬁnitions of religion (such as German

theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher’s “feeling of absolute

dependence,” Paul Tillich’s “ultimate concern,” or Mircea

Eliade’s “experience of the sacred”) emerge and evolve in our

modern era of Enlightenment thinking. Increasingly, the es-

sentialist approach toward understanding religion is being

taken over by functionalist approaches. Christopher Par-

tridge discussed three approaches to deﬁning religion (reli-

gious, naturalistic and agnostic), pointing out the limitations

or failure of each approach in taking into account other facets

of religions (i.e., a problem of breadth).

Instead, following

the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), some

scholars are working on the concept of “family resemblance”

whereby religion (like game theory) is a network that shares

overlapping similarities or common characteristics.

Adopting a family resemblance model in classifying religion

would be useful for our project when referring to humanity’s

belonging to distinct religious traditions. is idea of resem-

blance is helpful conceptually when using the term “religious

belonging,” for it implies not only a theological category but

functions as a descriptive term that is operative, applicable

and recognisable in the real-life situations of Asia. It can re-

shape our presuppositions about the religious other.

Our categories for understanding the religious other are

largely inﬂuenced by a modern set of Protestant Western cul-

tural assumptions, more often focusing on textual and doctri-

nal aspects as a basis for interreligious encounters. If we are

self-critical and open to the lived practices of people, we will

experience a dissonance with the idealized representations

of religious traditions from the classroom. Typically, we ask,

“What do you believe?” when we should be employing the

concept of lived religion.

Meredith McGuire points out

the messiness of religion and the diﬀerences between elite

institutions (with their organized systems) and the practice

of individual members. Instead of looking at textual or or-

ganisational aﬃliations, we should focus on “individuals, the

experiences they consider most important, and the concrete

practices that make up their personal religious experience and

expressions.”

Evangelical theologians, McDermott and Netland, acknowl-

edge that:

Many today contend that the ways in which we typically

think about and study religion are fundamentally awed.

Critics claim that our contemporary concept of religion—

and of the religions as distinct, clearly denable entities—is

a modern construction that emerged with the dissolution of

Christendom in Europe, the growing secularization of Euro-

pean societies, and the repercussions from European colo-

nialism and Christian missionary activities in Asia.

In answering this contention about our modern categorization,

I would suggest a more descriptive and sociological sense of

religious community. Griﬃths considers it to be “any group

of persons that would, severally and collectively, acknowledge

themselves to be members of some community that is recog-

nizably religious.”

Such sociological boundary markers, al-

beit porous and liminal in certain stages, enable demographers

Johnson and Grimm to deﬁne religion as,

an organised group of committed individuals that adhere to

and propagate a specic interpretation of explanations of

existence based on supernatural assumptions through state-

ments about nature and workings of the supernatural and

about ultimate meaning.

Although religions today may be identiﬁed as providing

comprehensive worldviews which then can be used as a

political tool that deﬁnes group-belonging sociologically, we

must note to the contrary a more real ﬂuidity in which people

negotiate religious identities.

If contextualization remains an important mission concept, and

if religion and culture are intimately linked and not to be easily

separated, then a more integrated and contextualized approach

toward the convert’s past religious traditions will be needed:

If the common feature of Jesus of Nazareth and the theological

idea of the incarnation are taken into account, the most vital

tenets of the Christian faith entail a constant call for contex-

tualisation. Since all cultures also display religious dimensions,

i.e., a fundamental openness to transcendence, this contex-

tualisation embraces also those traditions that have been la-

belled traditionally as “religions.”

Some scholars are working on the

concept of “family resemblance”

whereby religion (like game

theory) is a network that shares

overlapping similarities or common

characteristics.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

72 Crossing Religious and Cultural Frontiers: Rethinking Mission as Inreligionisation

Growing Up in Multireligious Malaysia

I grew up in a Confucian Chinese tradition mixed with

Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism. During my late teens, I

became a Christian through the reading of the Bible given by

a friend. My Christian conversion, or turning to God, was a

gradual process. It is diﬃcult to determine a point of explicit

confession of Christ as the moment of my personal conver-

sion. But due to the teachings in my local Baptist church, I

rejected all past associations with Chinese traditions. My re-

jection of Confucianist, Buddhist and Taoist cultures created

deep tension and conﬂicts within my family and extended

kinships since I could no longer participate in our family

ancestor rites, religious festivals, community celebrations, or

marriage and funeral rites. Due to the intimate links between

religion and culture, it is diﬃcult for Christian converts from

other religious traditions to distinguish what is cultural and

what is religious.

In later years, I discovered that turning to Jesus does not

mean one must reject every aspect of Chinese culture, even

if the practice is related to religious roots. I came across more

complex verses in the Christian Scriptures when Jesus identi-

ﬁed the Ninevites, the Queen of Sheba, and those who lived

in the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Sodom, and Gomorrah (Matt.

10:15; 11:11; 12:41–42) as among those who will be wel-

comed into the kingdom of God. God’s way of revelation will

not be limited by our inadequate preaching, and our failures

in mission are not the ﬁnal determinant of people’s salvation.

My personal account of tensions and misunderstandings

toward my family and cultural philosophical traditions, with

its intimate link with world religious traditions, and my

search for a more adequate Christian identity is not an isolat-

ed account, but one that is commonly repeated among Asian

converts from diﬀerent religious traditions. Lin Yutang, in his

spiritual autobiography,

From Pagan to Christian, traces his

spiritual pilgrimage—how he moved from a fundamental-

ist rejection of his past Chinese heritage to a recovery and

renewed appreciation of Chinese religion and a rejection of

Christianity. Only in his old age, did he return to his child-

hood Christian faith, deeper and wiser.

In a broader social political context, this personal example of

struggle as a Christian from a Buddhist background becomes

even more complicated when one considers the barriers for

Malay Muslims (in Malaysia) to accept a Jesus wrapped in

Western clothing. Although our research will focus on Buddhist

and Christian belonging, we must also consider the theological

implications of this study upon other faiths, particularly Islam

and Hinduism. e reason is due to the dominant growth of

insider movements that have mostly emerged within Islamic and

Hindu communities. erefore, most of the Christian literature

and discussions have taken place in the context of these two re-

ligious backgrounds, Islam and Hinduism. To date, there is no

major publication on dual religious belonging among Buddhists.

So, let’s turn to a description of the cultural and religious divide

between Christian and Muslim communities I experienced:

1. eological diﬀerences between Islam and Christianity

2. Religious misunderstandings inherited from centuries

of Christian-Muslim relations

3. Racial and cultural diﬀerences in Malaysia between

Muslims and Christians (the latter are mostly from

Chinese and Indian descent)

4. Social pressures against conversion to non-Muslim

religions within the Malay community

5. Legislative barriers hindering freedom of conversion,

marriage, burial and religious practice

6. Political structures organized along racial lines

7. Economic deprivations for converts, e.g., withdrawal

of special privileges for housing, business, children’s

education.

8. Impact of global events such as Palestinian-Israeli con-

ﬂicts, war of terror, and trade protectionism in Western

countries.

In a situation where ethnicity and religion overlap (a fusion com-

plicated by domestic and international socio-historical and po-

litical barriers) an adequate Christian theology of non-Christian

religions must take into consideration multi-dimensional reali-

ties, but particularly a perspective on the nature and method for

understanding dual religious belonging. ere is no such thing as

a purely bounded spiritual identity abstracted from socioreligious

experiences of life in community. Where does one draw the line

between culture and religion? Can Malay Christians follow Jesus

while remaining in a culture informed by non-Christian faiths?

How do Christians develop a map for discerning the possibility

of being a hybrid Muslim-Christian?

In sharing the questions surrounding this interreligious

predicament, I hope we will appreciate the complex issues

that require more interaction and deliberation before we form

simplistic, theological responses.

My rejection of my religious

heritage created deep conicts within

my family since I could no longer

participate in our family ancestor rites,

religious festivals, and funeral rites.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Kang-San Tan 73

Rethinking Mission as Inreligionisation

I use the term “inreligionisation” as a broad missiological reori-

entation that involves the transformation of non-Christian re-

ligious systems with gospel values, one that will require a more

radical following of Jesus’ model—the ushering in of the king-

dom of God. I deﬁne “frontier” as a zone of contacts and cre-

ative exchanges between adherents of diﬀerent religions, a zone

both open and liminal, with no one group being able to estab-

lish dominance. Instead, these are zones of proximal learning

explored in a spirit of humility, dialogue and hospitality.

is zone requires a radical relocation of message and messenger

into other non-Christian religious contexts rather than a more

traditional, territorial “from-to” approach. It is an attempt, for

example, by Christians from Asian religious traditions who be-

lieve that it is possible not only to accept and incorporate certain

doctrines or practices of other religions, but also to adopt in their

personal lives many of the beliefs and practices of these religious

traditions. It seeks to address both cultural objections against

Christianity as a Western religion as well as the pain and loss of

rooted Asian identities, i.e., whenever conversions to Jesus have

resulted in the rejection and suppression of past identities. It can

be understood as an eﬀort to retain or regain the texture and feel

of places people call home—where people seek God through

culturally embedded religious forms.

is is a global task which

Christians from the West could join—a shared vision to disciple

followers of Jesus within diﬀerent religious traditions.

In his response to my talk, H. L. Richard reminded us that

“inreligionisation” is not a novel concept. He noted that we could

trace similar ideas with Johan Herman Bavinck’s central con-

cept of

possessio, that disciples of Jesus are to take into posses-

sion under Christ and for the glory of Christ all the heritages

of the world’s cultural traditions. e Buddhist heritage belongs

to Buddhists who become captive to the glory of Christ, and

under Christ “all things are theirs” (1 Cor. 3:21–23), and they

are called to possess their rich heritage for Christ.

Richards

also highlighted Harvey Conn’s insight that “turning to Christ”

is not turning to another culture but the rediscovery of one’s

human origins and identity. He also asked whether “turning to

Christ” could include a turning to the religious traditions that

have shaped a person and society within any given culture.

Brad Gill, the editor for the

International Journal of Frontier

Missiology (IJFM),

helpfully suggested three dimensions to

a Christian engagement of this proposal of inreligionisation:

• Inreligionisation requires that gospel communications

respect other religious identities.

• Inreligionisation addresses the strategic loss in religious

displacement.

• Inreligionisation allows for a fresh hermeneutical space.

Regarding the latter, Gill cited William Dyrness’ concept of

“hermeneutical space” and summarized it as the kind of nec-

essary framework if inreligionisation is to ﬂourish:

• It is an interreligious space where other culturally embed-

ded religious practices are respected, simply because they

reﬂect man’s need and search for God.

• While these practices do not constitute the full way of

salvation, they reﬂect the local hermeneutical tools which

are indispensable to these spaces.

• ese are generative spaces, where a new diversity is an

opportunity to work out new and emergent meanings of

the biblical story.

• Since they are places of new integration, they can be

fraught with tension. ey are not culturally neutral, but

rather are locations where diﬀerent reigning perceptions

collide and very distinct linguistic and cultural categories

are contested.

• It involves a hermeneutical process, one which grants the

Spirit of God the freedom to create something new.

Such a proposal of mission engagement and culture transmis-

sion are welcome whenever Christians are open to meet with

other living faiths in such a way that there will be a Hindu

Christianity or Buddhist Christianity. Henri Nouwen speaks

of the Christian vocation to create these kinds of spaces for

strangers, “to convert the

hostisinto ahospes, the enemy into a

guest, and to create the free and fearless space where brother-

hood and sisterhood can be formed and fully experienced.”

Three Studies of Inreligionisation

At the conclusion of this ﬁrst lecture, and for our discussion, I

want to introduce three distinct studies that will stimulate our

reﬂection on some of the aspects of mission as inreligionisation.

Pilgrims and Ashrams

e ﬁrst is the story of Bede Griﬃths, who as a student at

Oxford under the inﬂuence of C. S. Lewis would develop a

deep interest in his Anglican Christian identity. However, in

1931, he became a Catholic Christian, and then in 1955 went to

India as a mission worker. Griﬃths became greatly in-

ﬂuenced by monks who had already started living in ways

typical of Hindu holy men

(sadhu). is involved wear-

ing saﬀron robes rather than a Western monk’s habit,

It was an effort to retain or regain

the texture and feel of places

people call home—where people

seek God through culturally

embedded religious forms.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

74 Crossing Religious and Cultural Frontiers: Rethinking Mission as Inreligionisation

a church? John felt this was God’s answer for his many years

of dedicated friendship and practical support to his Buddhist

friends. ey then began to trust that his real motive was

love rather than the conversion of his friends to Christian-

ity. After a few years, some of those ai migrants became

Christians. Instead of bringing them to church, John

discipled these converts in the Buddhist temple

in Scotland. Many years later, I caught up

with John on his journey of discipling fol-

lowers of Jesus in Buddhism, and he told

me that the head monk (the Abbot) had

also given his life to be a follower of Je-

sus within his Buddhist traditions.

Idols and Ancestors

In my third study I want us to reﬂect on

a hybrid diaspora community (as in my

own experience) and our response to the is-

sue of ancestor worship. As is typical, the process

of inreligionisation confronts questions: How shall a

contextual embodied community of Chinese Christians explore

ways in which ancestor worship might be acceptable based on a

Christian understanding of worship and relationship? Are there

contextually appropriate ways to incorporate the Chinese values

of respect towards ancestors (as we ﬁnd in the Bible) with the

ways in which we as Chinese Christians pay our respects to an-

cestors without resorting to worship of the ancestors?

How should Christians relate to idols? e biblical injunctions

are clear—we are to worship no other god but God. All idols are

to be destroyed. But what exactly are “idols”? Are the statutes of

saints in a church idols? Is the picture of Christ on the wall at

home an idol? Is a rock representing a local village spirit an idol?

What is “worship” and how does it diﬀer from “respect”?

Questions such as these constantly arise as we enter new

cultures with the gospel. ey are not new. e early church

wrestled with the question of the responsibility of Christians

to the Roman emperors, who declared themselves gods. Could

Christians simply bow to the emperors to express political al-

legiance? Or did it always signify worship? And how should

the church view Mary and the saints? e Council of Nicaea

in AD 787 wrestled long with the distinction between worship

(latreia) and respect (proskynesis).Here is an example of the

predicament I want to leave with you for further discussion.

After speaking at a Conference in ailand, a ai Christian

from Australia wrote to me with the following question:

I wonder what you think about this. This weekend, my fam-

ily will bow to my deceased grandparents, just in their old

house which is near where I stay with family. I generally do

not participate in this ritual. What would be your advice?

living in an ashram (traditional Hindu ascetic community),

studying Hindu philosophy, and even engaging in Hindu-

inspired forms of practice and meditation.

In 1958 Griﬃths established a Christian ashram called

Kurisumala. However, he was best known for his role at the

ashram of Shantivanam, which had been founded by

a monk known as Abhistikananda (Henri Le

Saux, 1910–1973). It was Abhistikananda

who oﬀered a rather famous description

of his experience while practicing Ad-

vaita Vedanta meditation, what is called

an “advaita experience”: feeling his own

self/soul merging with God/the divine

such that they were one and undif-

ferentiated. For a Christian monk who

believed in God as the Trinity and cre-

ator of humanity, this was hard for Abhis-

tikananda to reconcile on an intellectual level.

Nevertheless, he could not deny his experience of

union with the divine.

For Griﬃths, a dramatic experience occurred in 1990 when

he suﬀered a stroke and had what he termed an experience of

the divine feminine. He spoke of this as being linked to Hindu

goddesses but also in Christian terms as relating to Mary and

the Holy Spirit. In both these experiences Griﬃths and Abhis-

tikananda remained ﬁrm in their Christian identity, but both

were also deeply imbued within Hindu thought and practice.

Could they be spoken of as Hindus and Christians? Yet, in

their context, both these monks were aware that they were

seeking a reconciliation between what is seen as two separate

and distinct religions, between conﬂicting ways of experiencing

what it means to be religious.

Temples and Converts

A second example is my friend, John (not his real name), who

was a missionary in ailand for seventeen years and returned

to Scotland with many questions with regards to the lack of

fruitfulness during his mission service. He then completed

his PhD in Buddhism and began to take an interest in en-

gaging with Buddhist migrant communities in Scotland. In

the morning he went to the Church of Scotland, but during

the afternoon he would spend time helping migrants from

Buddhist countries with their practical needs. As the Bud-

dhists knew that he had a doctorate in Buddhism, they asked

him to teach them Buddhism. As a Christian, could he teach

Buddhism in the Temple with a clear conscience? Wasn’t he

supposed to reach them with the gospel instead? He decided

to respond to this request aﬃrmatively. After some time, they

said, you are a Christian missionary, please teach us the Bible!

Could he teach the Bible in a Buddhist temple rather than in

Could he teach

the Bible in a Buddhist

temple rather than

in a church?

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Kang-San Tan 75

Traditionally, many Christian pastors will advocate “no bowing

to ancestors.” Here was my response to this friend:

I would advocate a “contextual ancestor veneration”

whereby you could consider praying to God (or meditating

on a Psalm) giving thanks for your grandparents and your

extended family. Among Catholic Christians, they do light

incense or candles and would be contextualising holding

incense and offering prayers to God in memories of their

ancestors—although some Protestants might have difculty

with this practice. If we were to ask “modern Chinese Thais”

about such practices, they would say they are more about

respect and memories (less about idols and worship). This is

an example whereby as Christians we learn to dialogue and

not ascribe meanings a priori. May God grant you wisdom

and witness that’s meaningful for you and your family.

Endnotes

See Ivan Satyavrata, God has not Left Himself Without Witness, (Eugene, Or.: Wipf and Stock, 2011), 3–4.

During the ISFM plenary at the Evangelical Missiological Society’s national conference in October, 2021, I presented a lecture, “Contextual

Frameworks for Interreligious Communication: An Asian Perspective” which introduced some of the themes in this lecture.

David Bosch, Transforming Mission (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 477.

Gerhard Anderson, “eology of Religions and Missiology,” in e Good News of the Kingdom: Mission eology for the ird Millennium,

eds. Charles Van Engen, Dean Gilliland, and Paul Pierson (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993), 201.

Gavin D’Costa, eology and Religious Pluralism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 5; Christianity and World Religions: Disputed Questions in the

eology of Religions

(Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), x; Paul Knitter, Introducing eologies of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2009),

5–6; Harold Netland, Encountering Religious Pluralism: e Challenge to Christian Faith and Mission (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2001), 23–54.

D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism, 10.

See discussion in D’Costa, 7.

D’Costa, 7.

Daniel Strange, The Possibility of Salvation among the Unevangelised: An Analysis of Inclusivism in Recent Evangelical eology (Eugene:

Wipf & Stock, 2002), 13–14.

See discussion on deﬁning religions, new religions, and religious groups in Todd M. Johnson and Brian J. Grim, e World’s Religions in

Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography,

135–140.

See Christopher Partridge, “Religion (deﬁnitions),” in Dictionary of Contemporary Religion in the Western World (Leicester: InterVarsity Press,

2002), 59–65. See also Gavin D’Costa’s critique of John Hick’s separation of individual “faith” from community practices “involves ahistorical and

asocial reiﬁcation” in Gavin D’ Costa, John Hick’s eology of Religions: A Critical Evaluation (London: University Press of America, 1987), 136.

Meredith McGuire, Lived Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 3–4.

McGuire, Lived Religion, 4.

Gerald R. McDermott and Harold A. Netland, A Trinitarian eology of Religions: An Evangelical Proposal (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2014), 220.

Paul Griﬃths, An Apology for Apologetics (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991), 6.

Johnson and Grim, e World’s Religions in Figures, 136.

Johnson and Grim, 136.

Jyri Komulainen, “eological Reﬂections on multi-religious Identity,” Approaching Religion, vol. 1, (May 2001): 51–59, especially 51.

Lin Yutang, From Pagan to Christian (London: Beinemann, 1960).

Brad Gill, “Inreligionisation: Reconsidering that Most Vital Hermeneutical Space,” Editorial Reﬂections, IJFM 39:1 (Spring 2022): 53.

H. L. Richard, “Answering the Call to Inreligionisation: A Response to Dr. Kang-San Tan” (in reference to Tan's “Contextual Frame-

works for Interreligious Communication,” in the same issue), IJFM 39:1 (Spring 2022): 15–16.

Brad Gill, “Inreligionisation,” 51–54.

Brad Gill, “Inreligionisation,” 54.

Henri Nouwen, https://henrinouwen.org/meditations/create-space-for-the-stranger/.

One can see from these three examples that for Evangelicals a

mission that seeks to reconcile two incompatible and at times

contradictory religious systems is very problematic. Yet we real-

ize that Christianity has not had a successful record of mission

and evangelism with world faiths. Is not the harvest plentiful

and the labourers few within these world religions? Should we

not seek an inreligionalisation process whereby Christ becomes

all things to all men and the riches we ﬁnd in other religious

worlds are transformed for the service of Christ? IJFM

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

76 Response to Kang-San Tan's “Crossing Religious and Cultural Frontiers“

Response

A Response to Dr. Kang-San Tan

by Anna Travis

t was ajoy for me to read Dr. Tan’s paper, and now be

able torespond to this thought-provoking presentation.

Dr. Tan, thank you for this paper, and for your presentation,

borne out of your ownexperience and missiological study.

As I read this paper, I resonated strongly with Dr. Tan’s

experience of meeting Christ, the suppressing or rejecting

aspects of his own heritage, and now his eﬀorts to “retain

or regain the texture and feel” of the place he used to call

home—his Buddhist heritage. Dr. Tan has experienced

and recognizes the loss that takes place with religious dis-

location—when no other option was known or presented.

Numbers of Muslims we have met describe a similar journey.

I resonated strongly with Dr. Tan’s hope to re-visit essentialist

deﬁnitions of religion (based on doctrines and theoretical

understandings) that have put up barriers to the good news

. . . and his hope to develop alternative approaches to “lived

religion” that could open the way for interaction between reli-

gious life and the living Christ—“a fresh hermeneutical space,”

a fourth era, inreligionisation, a new wave—where Christians

honor and take seriously the realities of the religious aspects of

a person’s heritage.

I was happy to read Dr. Tan’s list of post-conservative evangelical

theological perspectives that could help open the way for new

Christ-centered kingdom expressions:

• Viewing Scripture as Spirit-inspired realistic narrative

• Seeing God as one who takes our pain and suﬀering into

himself as he risks to save the ones he created

• Reminding ourselves that God has not left himself without

a witness anywhere among the people he has made

• Emphasizing more strongly aspects of Jesus Christ’s

humanity as well as his divinity

• Rejecting triumphalism in mission, which certainly has

added so many unneeded barriers to the good news

e main question that arose in mymind concerns the viability

of “dual religious identities.” In the contexts with which I’m

familiar, the typical person expects a singular religious iden-

tity. (For example, a common question is, “Do you celebrate

Christmas or the celebration after Ramadan?” Each religious

group has the tradition of making trips “back home” to the

older members of the extended family on the main holiday. So,

the question is, on which holiday do you make your trip back

home? By the answer to this question, a person indicates his or

her single religious identity.)

However, in these same contexts, we have noticed a surprising

amount of ﬂexibility within this singular religious identity—

“wiggle room” in thinking, in spiritual perspectives, alterna-

tive streams, both existing and new—being permitted within

this singular identity. For example, there is room in many

Muslim communities for new spiritual realities concerning

Jesus and the New Testament.

I am wondering: Could this be largely a diﬀerence in semantics?

“Dual religious identities” vs. “Jesus streams” within another

singular religious identity, such as “Muslims who are disciples

of Jesus”? Is it possible that dual religious identities could be

more possible for the highly educated? Or for the younger

generations?

And of course, could dual religious identities be more possible

in other societies with which I am unfamiliar?

I look forward to grappling further with these ideas.

ank you so much, Dr. Tan, for your insights, your articulation

of your experience, and your hopes for a better future. IJFM

Dr. Tan has experienced and

recognizes the loss that takes place

with religious dislocation—when no

other option was known

or presented.

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International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 79

Harold Netland has served since 1993

as professor of religion and intercultural

studies at Trinity Evangelical Divinity

School. He was a missionary educator for

nine years in Japan with the Evangeli-

cal Free Church of America, in ministry

among university students and teaching

at Tokyo Christian University. He is a

proliﬁc author whose areas of expertise

include religious pluralism, epistemol-

ogy of religion, and missions in East

Asia. His most recent book is Religious

Experience and the Knowledge of God

(Baker Academic, 2022).

Beyond Contextualization

am very grateful for the opportunity to participate in the 2023 Ralph D.

Winter Lectureship. It is a special privilege for me to be here with my

friend Dr. Tan. e title of our lectureship is “Beyond Contextualization:

Crossing Religious and Cultural Boundaries.” Dr. Tan has addressed these

matters in a number of signiﬁcant writings, urging us to move beyond con-

textualization to embrace inreligionization. My comments here are based

primarily upon his 2022 essay, “Contextual Frameworks for Interreligious

Communication.”

His writings are thoughtful and provocative, and they raise

important issues. If I understand him correctly, I ﬁnd myself in broad agree-

ment with much that he says, but I do have some questions about his proposal.

As we consider contextualization and inreligionization, we need to remember

that these concepts are intended to enable us to live more faithfully as follow-

ers of Jesus Christ and to make disciples of Jesus of all peoples. is includes

sincere and pious adherents of other religions. What should this look like in

the 2020s and 2030s?

Becoming Disciples of Jesus

Let’s begin with the notion of being disciples of Jesus. A disciple is a committed

follower of Jesus, someone whose life is characterized by the qualities outlined

for us in Jesus’ teachings throughout the New Testament. Becoming a disciple

of Jesus involves believing certain things about God, Jesus, and humankind to

be true; it also includes acknowledging one’s sinfulness and casting oneself on

God for mercy and forgiveness. It is only through the supernatural work of the

Holy Spirit that one becomes a “new creation” and is able to grow steadily in

conformity to the image of Christ.

Becoming a disciple of Jesus involves both continuities and discontinuities with

one’s past. In becoming a disciple, for example, one does not abandon one’s

nationality or ethnicity. We cannot entirely escape the collective inﬂuences that

Making Disciples, Contextualization, and

Inreligionization: Some Reections

by Harold A. Netland

Editor’s Note: is article was originally presented at the 2023 Ralph D. Winter

Lectureship under the theme, “Beyond Contextualization: Crossing Religious and Cul-

tural Boundaries.”

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

80 Making Disciples, Contextualization, and Inreligionization: Some Reections

But the Pilgrim Principle reminds us that although the gospel

can be expressed within any social context it also stands apart

from all contexts and judges every human community. e

gospel is subversive and challenges patterns of life in every

setting which are unjust or idolatrous. In an important sense,

then, Christ’s disciples are “aliens and sojourners” and cannot

be completely “at home” in any social setting. And therein lies

the tension within which every community of Christ-followers

must live and within which we endeavor to make disciples.

The Gospel and World Religions

Dr. Tan has suggested that focusing just on contextualization

with respect to culture is inadequate and that we need also

to ask new questions about the relation between the gospel

and major religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Is-

lam. Inreligionization is proposed as a necessary step beyond

contextualization.

I do agree with Dr. Tan that we need to take the major

religions much more seriously and that we must extend ques-

tions about continuity and discontinuity beyond just the cul-

tural dimension to include religion. Missionaries and local

Christian leaders generally have not taken the time to study

carefully religions such as Islam, Hinduism or Buddhism.

Missiologists have tended to focus on folk religion

and

have largely neglected the intellectual traditions within the

great religions. Moreover, when religions are considered, they

tend to be dismissed as little more than domains of darkness,

falsehood and evil. We have not treated followers of these

religions with the respect that they deserve. We need to re-

think our approach and to repent of un-Christlike attitudes.

ankfully, there are welcome changes in some sectors. e

2010 Cape Town Commitment, for example, strikes a fresh

tone when it states,

In the name of the God of love, we repent of our failure

to seek friendships with people of Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist,

and other religious backgrounds. In the spirit of Jesus, we

will take initiatives to show love, goodwill, and hospitality

to them. (IIc.1b)

I also agree with Dr. Tan that there are aspects of one’s previous

religious life that can be incorporated into one’s new identity as

a disciple of Jesus.

Inreligionization

What then should we say about Dr. Tan’s notion of

inreligionization? My ﬁrst observation is that it is not entirely

clear to me just what is meant by the term. Although I agree

that we need to take the religious dimension more seriously,

do we really need a new term for this? What does inreligion-

ization add that could not be included in contextualization?

shape us when we come in faith to Christ—nor should we

desire to do so. As historian Andrew Walls reminds us, “It

is our past which tells us who we are; without our past we

are lost.”

At the same time, embracing Jesus Christ as Lord

always includes a turning from, or rejection of, some aspects

of our past. In determining to follow Christ some things are

left behind. Jesus begins his ministry with a call to repentance:

“e time has come. e kingdom of God has come near. Re-

pent and believe the good news.” (Mark 1:15) And Paul urges

the folk religionists in Lystra to “turn from these worthless

things to the living God.” (Acts 14:15) Yet, not everything

from one’s past should be rejected. e break with the past

must be over the right issues and for the right reasons, and this

calls for wise judgment in sometimes perplexing situations.

Contextualization

It is in trying to ﬁnd the proper balance between continuity

and discontinuity that discussions about contextualization

arise. By “contextualization” I simply mean the attempt to use

symbolic forms which are suﬃciently familiar to people with-

in a particular context, and which adequately communicate

the message of Scripture, in an eﬀort to encourage acceptance

of the gospel and obedience to Christ. Contextualization in-

volves not only issues over linguistic terms used in translation

but also concepts, identity markers, patterns of behavior, ritu-

als, and social institutions. As such, contextualization is not

an activity reserved for intercultural missionary encounters;

it is something every church in any social context ought to

be engaged in.

Contextualization is a dynamic process which operates at

the tension produced by the polarity of two basic principles

identiﬁed by Andrew Walls as the Indigenizing Principle and

the Pilgrim Principle.

e Indigenizing Principle maintains

that the gospel can be expressed in any language and can be

“at home” within any cultural setting; there is no particular

culture, language, or ethnicity that is distinctively Christian

and thus normative for all people. is principle aﬃrms one’s

historical and current social context as a legitimate venue

within which to live as authentic disciples of Jesus. One need

not be abstracted from one’s broader social context.

Religions tend to be dismissed as

little more than domains of darkness,

falsehood and evil. We have not treated

followers of these religions with

the respect they deserve.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Harold A. Netland 81

In what follows, I will make brief comments on ﬁve issues,

the ﬁrst two having to do with culture and religion and the

last three with the notion of inreligionization.

Culture and Religion

First, part of our problem has been that too often mis-

siologists have made a sharp distinction between

the concepts of culture and religion, restricting

contextualization to cultural matters while

largely ignoring religious beliefs and prac-

tices. Although this is not his intention, I

am concerned that in introducing a new

term such as “inreligionisation” Dr. Tan

might be reinforcing this dichotomy be-

tween culture and religion in an unhelp-

ful manner. Contextualization focuses on

culture whereas inreligionisation moves

beyond culture to deal with religion. But this

presupposes a neat distinction between culture

and religion which cannot be sustained.

Modern Constructs

It is important to remember that concepts such as culture,

religion, the world religions, and even the notions of Hinduism

and Buddhism, were developed during the past several centu-

ries as Europeans and Americans became increasingly aware

of the bewildering diﬀerences among various groups of people

worldwide. As such, these concepts are in part modern con-

structs.

But to say that they are modern constructs is not to

suggest that they do not pick out real patterns among diverse

groups. Nor does this mean that what the terms “culture” and

“religion” refer to had no reality prior to the modern era. It does

mean, however, that these concepts were developed under par-

ticular historical circumstances and for certain purposes.

e concepts of religion and culture are important and, when

properly qualiﬁed, can be helpful.

ese are conceptual lens-

es intended to help us see and understand general patterns of

similarity and diﬀerence across groups of people worldwide.

To the extent that such concepts enable us to understand the

lived realities among diverse peoples, they are helpful and

should be utilized. But if they obscure or distort these reali-

ties, then they should be modiﬁed.

Distinctions and Overlap

Without attempting to deﬁne the concepts of culture or

religion here, we can observe that if we accept Ninian Smart’s

characterization of religion as a multidimensional phenome-

non then it is clear that the notions of culture and religion are

similar and overlap. Smart suggests that we think of religions

as complex social systems characterized by ritual, narrative,

doctrine, ethical norms, social institutions, experience, and ma-

terial objects.

Although the concepts of culture and religion

clearly overlap, they are distinct concepts and neither can be

reduced to the other. For example, the same religion—Chris-

tianity or Buddhism—can be lived out or ﬁnd expres-

sion in many diﬀerent cultures. And if we think

of culture very broadly, such as American

culture or Singaporean culture, then there

can be many religious traditions within

one culture.

Boundary Markers

Concepts such as culture and religion,

or even Christianity and Buddhism,

serve as boundary markers, setting oﬀ

one domain from another. Boundaries of

one kind or another are essential to success-

ful living. Engaging with religious others, for

whatever reason, involves crossing various boundaries.

In a thoughtful and perceptive essay, David Vishanoﬀ ob-

serves that “e notion of interreligious encounter presup-

poses the existence of a boundary across which interaction

takes place.”

Boundaries are markers of diﬀerence and serve

various purposes. But Vishanoﬀ emphasizes that encounters

across religious boundaries take place within a broader con-

text of commonalities among those in the encounter. If two

or more groups literally have nothing in common, then actual

encounter would be impossible. Boundaries between reli-

gious groups become signiﬁcant when particular things are

highlighted, thereby calling attention to the diﬀerences (e.g.,

dietary restrictions). If other things were highlighted (respect

for ancestors) the groups might be regarded as having much

in common.

Boundaries are to some extent socially constructed and

changeable. ey are the product of certain collective deci-

sions, often implicit, to regard certain things as signiﬁcant

markers of identity, distinguishing one’s own group from the

others. Boundary markers can and sometimes do change.

But whether certain boundary markers ought to be modiﬁed

or abandoned is often a controversial and contested matter

for a group.

Although missiologists are generally sensitive to the changing

dynamics of culture, they often tend to treat religions as un-

changing, homogenous, reiﬁcations. But the great religions

such as Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam are

vast families of traditions with enormous internal variation,

and they are continually undergoing change, especially in the

modern era with globalization.

What does

inreligionization

add that could not

be included in

contextualization?

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

82 Making Disciples, Contextualization, and Inreligionization: Some Reections

Furthermore, in many contexts today the distinction between

religion and culture is ambiguous and messy, so that it can be

diﬃcult to determine whether a practice is cultural or religious.

is was certainly my experience in Japan. Is a funeral presided

over by Buddhist priests a cultural or a religious event? What

about ancestral veneration practices in the home or at the grave

site? e problem becomes even more confusing when we

consider that the symbolic meanings of institutions

or practices change over time, and that during

such transitions the meanings are contested

and controversial. Who decides the mean-

ing of a ritual in times of transition?

I recall a conversation with an elderly

Japanese grandmother after I had given a

presentation at a church. She had become

a disciple of Jesus as an elderly woman—

something that is extremely rare in Japan.

But she had a question for me. Why, she

asked, do Christians forbid participation in

the local

matsuri or festivals? A matsuri is a spe-

cial festival, a time of boisterous celebration, music and

dance. Most matsuri began in religious contexts and originally

had clear religious meanings. Participants carry elaborate pa-

lanquins around town, and traditionally it was believed that

special

kami or deities of the village were housed in the pa-

lanquin. After parading the kami around the village, the men

then escort the kami back to the Shinto shrine where they are

deposited until the next celebration. But although the origin of

most matsuri is clearly religious, one can argue that over time

the religious signiﬁcance of the festivals has diminished so that

now they are primarily cultural celebrations. And that was this

grandmother’s point. She did not believe that the palanquins

literally housed Shinto kami—the matsuri was simply an occa-

sion for a fun celebration with her grandchildren and she could

not understand why the Christians in her church disapproved

of her enjoying the festivals with her grandkids.

I ﬁnd her question very instructive. She was a new believer and

had not yet been socialized in all the ways of the local Christian

community. Moreover, she represents the many Japanese today

who regard the matsuri as a cultural, not a religious, event, where-

as her friends at church still think of it in religious terms. is

naturally raises the question, whose perspective on the matsuri is

correct and why? e grandmother’s perspective is important—

but so too are the perspectives of her fellow believers at church.

Is Culture More Benign than Religion?

My second observation concerns the missiological tendency

to regard the domain of culture as relatively benign or neu-

tral, with good potential for successful contextualization of

the gospel, while dismissing the religious sphere as inherently

problematic and incompatible with the gospel. us, if a

belief or practice is “merely cultural” then it is probably

alright to use it in contextualization; but if it is clearly reli-

gious, then it is not.

But why should we assume this? Is the cultural realm really

less problematic than the religious? Is the religious dimension

really more likely to contain false beliefs, evil, and

the demonic than the cultural? I do not want

to minimize what is false and evil wherever

these occur, but I do think that we need a

more nuanced approach to these issues

than is usually found in missiological

discussions. Religions can contain re-

markable elements of truth, goodness

and beauty along with what is false and

evil; and cultures can be demonic and

evil as well as repositories of beauty and

goodness. And yet, having said that, there

does seem to be

something about the religious

dimension that elevates its signiﬁcance when we

consider making disciples of Jesus. Religion, as Paul

Tillich famously noted, addresses matters of ultimate concern

and this brings it into potential conﬂict with the gospel in

ways that culture may not.

Let me summarize this brief section on cultures and religions

by suggesting that the most signiﬁcant issue is not the la-

bel we ascribe to a particular belief or practice, whether it is

cultural or religious. e most important question is whether

adopting that belief or practice will make it easier for people

to become disciples of Jesus Christ or whether doing so will

actually inhibit disciple making.

Identity and Hybridity

Now several observations about the notion of inreligioniza-

tion. First, Dr. Tan raises the issue of identity and especially

hybrid or multiple religious identity. Can there be a Hindu

Christianity or a Buddhist Christianity? A Hindu Christian

or a Buddhist Christian? ese are complex questions, and

they are made more diﬃcult by globalization. Who deter-

mines a person’s identity? Minimally, it seems, the perspec-

tive of the individual is relevant—how does the individual

understand his or her own identity? But much more than just

the individual is involved. I think of my father in rural Japan

when I was a child. My father was from Norway and he was

proud of his Norwegian identity. But when Japanese children

saw him walking down the road they would point at him and

exclaim “Amerika-jin! Amerika-jin!” e only category they

had for someone with blond hair and blue eyes was “Ameri-

can.” Although my father would vigorously protest and cor-

rect them, they kept calling him an American. Our identity

We regard culture

as relatively benign

yet dismiss religion as

problematic.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Harold A. Netland 83

is in part beyond our control and is shaped by what others

perceive us to be. In my father’s case, the issue was national or

ethnic identity, but similar factors are at work with religious

identity. In addition to the individual, there are many other

stakeholders in determining whether one can claim the label

Christian Buddhist. Given globalization and the technologi-

cal revolutions in communication, these stakeholders can be

far removed from the local context.

Now, there certainly are those today who identify themselves

as both Christian and Buddhist. I think of my friend Paul

Knitter, the prominent Roman Catholic theologian who has

also taken vows as a Buddhist and who wrote

Without Bud-

dha I Could Not Be a Christian.

ere are many in Europe

and North America like him who embrace dual or multiple

religious identities. I do think it is signiﬁcant, however, that

I cannot recall ever meeting anyone in Japan who referred to

themselves as Christian Buddhists.

But this raises a related issue: Whose Christianity and which

Buddhism? Paul Knitter, for example, represents an extremely

liberal form of Roman Catholicism that is certainly outside of

traditional Christian theism. Moreover, as one reads his book

it becomes clear that he selectively reinterprets key Buddhist

and Christian teachings to make them more amenable to

his pluralist perspective. In other words, what he embraces

is a syncretistic mix that, in my view, is neither authentically

Christian nor Buddhist.

But can one be a genuine disciple of Jesus Christ, as the

Christian tradition has understood this historically, and also

be an authentic Buddhist as this has been understood within

Buddhism? But again—which kind of Buddhism? Buddhist

intellectuals—who often insist that Buddhism is a philoso-

phy and not a religion—typically have little in common with

folk Buddhists, who often are animistic and polytheistic. In

addition to the many schools of Buddhism, there are also the

regional diﬀerences—Buddhism in Myanmar or ailand

is quite diﬀerent from Japanese Buddhism. And then there

are the many variations of Buddhism in Europe and North

America, which minimize traditional metaphysical teachings

and turn Buddhism into a kind of modern therapy.

Being

disciples of Jesus might be more compatible with certain

forms of Buddhism than others.

Peter Phan’s Denition of Inreligionization

A second issue concerns Dr. Tan’s use of Peter Phan’s

deﬁnition of inreligionization. Phan advocates that we not only

accept in theory certain doctrines or practices of other religions

but that we incorporate them, perhaps in modiﬁed form, into

Christianity, and that Christians adopt in their personal lives

“the beliefs, moral rules, rituals and monastic practices” of other

religions.

But just what is being suggested here?

It is one thing to acknowledge that there are certain similarities

between some Buddhist practices or beliefs and those of

Christianity. For example, many have pointed out the striking

similarities between the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, which

is especially popular in China, Taiwan, and Japan, and Prot-

estant Christianity. Indeed, there are remarkable similarities.

But to say that two teachings or practices are similar is not to

say that they are identical, and I think that despite the obvious

similarities in some respects Pure Land Buddhist teachings

are signiﬁcantly diﬀerent from Christian teachings.

I do ﬁnd much to admire in Buddhism, especially in its

inﬂuence aesthetically on Japanese culture. ere is much

beauty in Japanese culture and art that has been inspired by

Buddhism. I think here of Japanese gardens, calligraphy, the

tea ceremony, martial arts, poetry, literature, and drama, all

of which have been inﬂuenced by Buddhism. Signiﬁcantly,

some rituals that emerged within Japanese Buddhism have

been adopted within Christian churches—for example, the

tea ceremony. But these have been adopted largely because

they have lost their earlier Buddhist texture and are now re-

garded as Japanese cultural practices.

But if we follow Phan’s proposal, which Buddhist doctrines

should Japanese Christians, for example, accept? e Four

Noble Truths, the central teaching of traditional Buddhism?

ere is an elegant logic to these four core teachings and I

ﬁnd the Buddhist analysis of desire / craving

(tanha) to be

perceptive.

But I cannot accept these as the true teaching

about the origin of suﬀering and its elimination. And if I

cannot accept the Four Noble Truths as the correct diagno-

sis of the causes of suﬀering then I cannot accept the Noble

Eightfold Path as the prescription to its elimination. Nor can

I, given the Christian teaching on creation, accept the doc-

trine of

paticca-samuppada (variously translated as dependent

origination or origination by dependence) as the fundamental

principle of things coming into being. I also think the tradi-

tional teaching of

anatta—no self—is incompatible with the

Christian understanding of the person. And, of course, until

the twentieth century, Buddhism was understood as denying

To say that two teachings

are similar—like Pure Land Buddhist

and Christian teachings—

is not to say

they are identical.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

84 Making Disciples, Contextualization, and Inreligionization: Some Reections

states that “organized, established Buddhism in Japan is in

a serious state of decline, one that threatens the continued

existence of a major religious tradition that for over a mil-

lennium has been an important element in the sociocultural

fabric of Japan.”

Reader observes that public dissatisfaction

with Buddhism is so pervasive that a new phrase has been

adopted—bukkyobanare (estrangement from Buddhism).

He contends that Japan today is actually a highly secularized

society.

Secularization (in terms of the idea of a “decline of religion“

and a public withdrawal from engagement with the re-

ligious sphere) is a growing force to be reckoned with in

Japan today. Moreover, there are clear correlations between

modernisation, urbanisation and higher levels of education

(factors often cited as formative forces in the secularisation

process), and declining levels of religious belief and practice,

whether individually or institutionally.

To the extent that other traditionally Buddhist societies

also are being impacted by modernization, urbanization and

globalization, we might expect that they too will undergo

declining public attraction to Buddhism. If so, this raises

the question whether, in such societies, a closer identiﬁca-

tion with Buddhist teachings and practices might actually be

counterproductive in making disciples of Jesus. IJFM

the reality of an eternal Creator God.

If inreligionization

means accepting any of these core Buddhist teachings as they

are understood within Buddhism, then I must object.

Increasing Secularization and Inreligionization

Finally, I think we also need to ask whether closer identiﬁca-

tion with Buddhism is necessarily a positive thing for local

disciples of Jesus. Much depends upon the particular context.

In areas where Buddhist traditions and identity are still re-

garded positively, perhaps an appropriate form of adaptation

can be helpful.

But in many cases, including Japan, I do not think this will be

advantageous. Although most Japanese still identify as Bud-

dhists, recent studies show that institutional Buddhism is in

serious decline and that younger Japanese are rejecting some

key markers of Buddhist identity. Ian Reader examines a wide

variety of evidence—including multiple surveys of religious

beliefs, the numbers of temples, Buddhist priests, participa-

tion in popular folk rituals, Buddhist funerals, or observance

of the Buddhist family altars—and concludes that all indi-

cators show a clear decline in Buddhist aﬃliation. Reader

Recent studies show that

institutional Buddhism is in serious

decline and younger Japanese

are rejecting key markers

of Buddhist identity.

Endnotes

See especially Kang-San Tan, “Contextual Frameworks for Interreligious Communication: An Asian Perspective,” International Journal

of Frontier Missiology

39:1 (Spring 2022): 5–14.

Andrew Walls, “e Gospel as Prisoner and Liberator of Culture,” e Missionary Movement in Christian History (Maryknoll, Orbis, 1996), 13.

Walls, “e Gospel as Prisoner,” 13.

By “folk religion” I mean the beliefs and practices of ordinary lay believers rather than those of the scholars, theologians, priests or other

“gatekeepers” of the religious tradition.

e literature on the development of the concept of religion is vast, but helpful discussions include Tomoko Masuzawa, e Invention

of World Religions

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Brent Nongbri, Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept (New

Haven: Yale University Press, 2013); Guy Stroumsa,

A New Science: e Discovery of Religion in the Age of Reason (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press, 2010). See also Kevin Schilbrack, “Religions: Are ere Any?”

Journal of the American Academy of Religion 78:4

(December 2010): 1112–38.

See Harold Netland, Christianity and Religious Diversity (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), chapter 1.

Ninian Smart, Dimensions of the Sacred (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).

David R. Vishanoﬀ, “Boundaries and Encounters,” in Understanding Interreligious Relations, eds. David Cheetham, Douglas Pratt and

David omas (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 342.

Paul Tillich, Christianity and the Encounter of World Religions (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 4.

Paul Knitter, Without Buddha I Could not be a Christian (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009). See also Robert B. Stewart, ed., Can Only One Reli-

gion be True? Paul Knitter and Harold Netland in Dialogue

(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013).

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Harold A. Netland 85

See David L. McMahan, e Making of Buddhist Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008) and idem, ed., Buddhism in the

Modern World

(London: Routledge, 2012).

Peter Phan, as quoted in Kang-San Tan, “Contextual Frameworks for Interreligious Communication,” 5.

See Donald W. Mitchell, Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, 2

ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 45–60; and

Paul Williams with Anthony Tribe and Alexander Wynne, Buddhist ought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2

ed.

(New York: Routledge, 2012), 30–54.

On the question of the compatibility of Buddhism with an eternal creator God see Keith Yandell and Harold Netland, Buddhism: A

Christian Exploration and Appraisal

(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009), 181–92; Paul Williams, “Aquinas Meets the Bud-

dhists: Prolegomena to an Authentically omas-ist Basis for Dialogue,” in Aquinas in Dialogue: omas for the Twenty-First Century,

eds. Jim Fodor and Christian Bauerschmidt (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), 87–117. See also the debate among Perry Schmidt-

Leukel, “‘Light and Darkness’ or ‘Looking rough a Dim Mirror’? A Reply to Paul Williams from a Christian Perspective”; José Ignacio

Cabezón, “A Buddhist Response to Paul Williams’ e Unexpected Way”; and Paul Williams, “Buddhism, God, Aquinas, and Morality:

An Only Partially Repentant Reply to Perry Schmidt-Leukel and José Cabezón,” in Converging Ways? Conversion and Belonging in

Christianity and Buddhism,

ed. John D’Arcy May (EOS: Klosterverlag Sangt Ottilien, 2007), 67–154.

Ian Reader, “Buddhism in Crisis? Institutional Decline in Modern Japan,” Buddhist Studies Review 28:2 (2011): 235.

Ian Reader, “Secularisation, R.I.P.? Nonsense! e ‘Rush Hour Away from the Gods’ and the Decline of Religion in Contemporary

Japan,” Journal of Religion in Japan 1 (2012): 16.

Reader, “Secularisation,” 10–11.

Educating for

contemporary mission

2023

Conference details at www.emsweb.org • Online or in person • Registration is open

ISFM

Formation for the

Frontier

Plenary Speaker:

Dr. Paul Cornelius, President, William Carey Int’l University

“Rescuing the Mind from Academics:

A South Asian Perspective on Education for Contemporary Engagement”

October 13–14, 2023 • New location: Dallas Theological Seminary

in conjunction with

The intersection of education and mission produces a maze of models and practices.

This year’s EMS/ISFM conference will oer dierent perspectives from the academy,

the church and the eld practitioner.

The ISFM track of presentations will focus particularly on the formative principles, structures,

and curricula required for eective service in frontier contexts.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

86 Response to Harold A. Netland’s “Making Disciples, Contextualization, and Inreligionization“

Response to Dr. Harold A. Netland

by Darren Duerksen

’ve long appreciated Dr. Netland’s work in theologies and

philosophies of religion, and it is wonderful to have him

here and to be able to respond to his excellent paper. He

has raised some important questions and issues that spur

thoughts and questions of my own.

First, I appreciate and agree with Dr. Netland’s discussion on the

relationship of culture and religion. He rightly warns us to not

reify or reinforce an artiﬁcial divide between culture and religion,

or at least to try not to as best as we’re able with the limitations of

our language. But, while we should recognize the deep relation-

ship between culture and religion, he also reminds us that they

are not completely the same. Religious practices and beliefs are

distinct from other aspects of culture, but also certainly part of

and deeply connected to culture. I also appreciate his admoni-

tion to not vilify religion as evil while gracing culture as neutral.

Rather, we need to see that God’s goodness resides in both the

cultural and the religious, and that both are also broken by sin.

And yet, and perhaps I’m wrong and can be corrected, I sense

that it is important for Dr. Netland that Christ-followers

clearly discern what is religious and what is cultural. He shares

how Christians in Japan forbid participation in the

matsuri fes-

tival, which puzzled an elderly, new Christ-follower. Netland

suggests that, because she saw it as a culturally fun celebration

with little popular association with its Shinto origins, it might

be acceptable for her and other Christians to celebrate it. But

what, I want to ask, if it did have some “religious” signiﬁcance?

Might a group of Christ-followers discern some aspect of God,

his goodness, wisdom, or truth, in it, thereby providing another

reason for which they could and should celebrate it?

Along these lines, I think one of the more important topics

that Netland directs us to is the question of the “adoption”

of practices and beliefs. He critiques Peter Phan’s proposal

that Christians incorporate in their personal lives “the beliefs,

moral rules, rituals and monastic practices” of other religions.

He suggests this is ﬁne if the practices have lost some of their

explicit religious orientation, as with the Japanese tea cer-

emony, but what about teachings that would run counter to

historic Christian theology, like certain tenets of Buddhism?

Does inreligionization mean that Christians adopt these?

I certainly appreciate that some teachings and practices could be

found by Christ-followers to not be consistent with following

Christ. But I think we need to move beyond what missiologists

used to discuss as “form and meaning.” In this framework, the

central aspect of Christianity is its meaning, its doctrines and

ideas. e forms that housed and expressed this meaning could

be adapted and changed—or contextualized—so long as the

meaning was preserved. I agree that meaning is important. But, I

want to ask, whose meaning is to be preserved? e Calcedonian

Christian meaning? Sixteenth century German Christian

meaning? Twentieth century American Christian meaning? I’m

not suggesting there is nothing central to the Christ following

traditions. Certainly, faith in Christ as Son of God, his birth,

death, and resurrection, its importance for salvation, and Jesus’

inauguration of the kingdom of God are all things I would argue

are essential for Christ following faith and communities. But

Christ-followers understand these in various ways depending on

their hermeneutical cultural and religious lenses.

Perhaps one of the problems is again our terminology. Dr.

Netland rightly suggests that it is perhaps a distraction to try and

parse out whether something is cultural or religious. To think of

dual religious belonging, or of someone being both Christian and

Hindu gets us into these quandaries of if, and how, Christians

can be more Hindu, or Hindus can be somewhat Christian. I

wonder if it could be more helpful to consider how persons in

other religious communities interpret, make sense of, and follow

biblical scripture and Christ through and in light of their com-

munity’s religious beliefs and practices. In other words, how do

they read Christ in light of the four Noble Truths and the eight-

fold path? No doubt, biblical scripture and Christ’s leading may

cause them to aﬃrm, modify, challenge, and perhaps not accept

some of these, or aspects of them. But beyond the question of

picking and choosing is the question of, not if, but how, their

religious traditions shape their understanding of Christ, and how

Christ by his Spirit is at work in this process.

I want to recall a statement that Anna Travis made in her

presentation. To paraphrase—the goal is not to try and retain

a religious identity or set of beliefs or practices. e goal, the

attraction, is the magnetic reality of Jesus. What will help persons

grasp this? For some, perhaps for many, it will be to follow and

make sense of Jesus from within their religious tradition, what-

ever they decide to call themselves. As Netland suggests at the

end of his paper, perhaps some will not ﬁnd this desirable—they

might not

want to identify and interpret things from a Buddhist

perspective, because they do not do that anyway. Perhaps they’ve

adopted a secular viewpoint, and

that is now their hermeneutical

lens. In this case we’re still talking about inreligionisation, except

that the gospel is engaging a Buddhist-tinged secular frame-

work. e goal is still the reality of Jesus. IJFM

Response

Might a group of Christ-followers

discern some aspect of God, his

goodness, wisdom, or truth

in the Shinto celebration?

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 87

Brainerd Prince (PhD, OCMS,

Oxford/Middlesex University) is

presently Director of the Center

for inking, Language and Com-

munication and Associate Professor

of Practice at Plaksha University

in India.

Beyond Contextualization

his is a methodological enquiry about the dialogue of traditions,

particularly religious traditions, and in speciﬁc about the dialogue

between Christian and Hindu traditions in India. Historically, if

Christian traditions encountered Hindu traditions in three waves, then my

contention is that the quality of this engagement has continually degenerated

over centuries, to an extent that the current political climate does not freely

allow any engagement between Hindu and Christian traditions.

Although we only have sparse records, the ﬁrst wave of the Eastern Christian

tradition’s engagement with Hindu traditions appears to have had huge suc-

cesses. During the initial Catholic wave of about a thousand years, the language

of conversion became prominent, and the quality of engagement decreased.

e Protestant wave continued the agenda of the Catholic traditions, and the

modern missionary movement was born. is was accompanied by the politi-

cal colonization of India. Christian traditions standing on the shoulders of

political power had little regard for their Hindu counterpart. Contemporary

post-independent India continues to bear this brunt that has created enmity

between the Hindu and Christian traditions.

erefore, there is a need for a new model of Christian engagement with Hindu

traditions, a model that not only does not antagonise Hindus but also enables

Hindu traditions to legitimately self-discover Christian traditions in the encoun-

ter. What better model would be acceptable to a Hindu than one that is born and

shaped within the Hindu horizon? Udayanacharya, a great Ny

āya Hindu scholar of

the eleventh century, has provided one such framework as a model of engagement

between traditions, which can be termed the

samvāda engagement of traditions.

e argument presented in this paper is this: if Christians are able to engage

with Hindus using a model of engagement that is acceptable to Hindus, then

that engagement will necessarily be successful and meaningful. e paper has

four parts: Section one explores a few models of “engagement” in mission studies.

Udayanacharya’s Samv da and the Dialogue of

Traditions:

A Model of Inreligionization

by Brainerd Prince

Editor’s Note: is article was originally presented at the 2023 Ralph D. Winter

Lectureship under the theme, “Beyond Contextualization: Crossing Religious and Cul-

tural Boundaries.”

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

88 Udayanacharya's Samvāda and the Dialogue of Traditions: A Model of Inreligionization

or cultures.”

e term “inculturation” is a development from old

terms like “adaptation,” “accommodation,” and “indigenization”

as the need to move away from the concept of a western culture

imposing its universal gospel. Pedro Arrup deﬁnes it as:

The incarnation of Christian life and of the Christian message

in a particular context, in such a way that this experience not

only nds expression through elements proper to the culture

in question (this alone would be no more than a supercial

adaptation) but becomes a principle that animates, directs

and unies the culture, transforming it and remaking it so as

to bring about a “new creation.”

It is interesting that Shorter talks about a “relationship.” However,

it is not the relationship between the missionary and the mis-

sionized that has been reﬂected upon, but rather the relationship

between the Christian message and culture. It is quite revealing

that although there appears to be importance given to the other’s

context, in inculturation, the other continues to be eclipsed.

According to Arrup, the sole purpose seems to be on “transform-

ing” the culture according to the message in order to bring about a

“new creation,” and in no way is it bothered about the relationship

between the missionary and those missionized.

While contextualization is very similar to inculturation, Darrell

L. Whiteman notes that contextualization seeks to make the

gospel/text relevant to the context of the culture.

It is the model

of contextualization that necessitated the rise of contextual the-

ology, giving importance not only to the Scripture but also to

the context in which it surfaces.

Stephen Bevans understands

classical theology as being objective and contextual theology

as being subjective.

However, he claims that while it does not

resort to relativism, it gives due importance to context because

meaning is ascribed to reality through “the context of our culture

or our historical period, interpreted from our own particular ho-

rizon and in our own particular thought forms.”

e contextual

model of mission does direct us to the context of the mission

ﬁeld and its horizon. However, once again, the relationship be-

tween the missionary and the missionized community remains

invisible and unaddressed.

In this brief survey what is seen is that while the context and

historical location of those missionized are being taken into con-

sideration, the ontological relationship or engagement the mis-

sionary has with the missionized community is not addressed.

Of course, one could counter-argue that those mission agency

handbooks, particularly for new missionaries, would give speciﬁc

instructions on how to behave and live in a mission context. A

quick look at two handbooks revealed that while there is a lot of

information and even rules on how the missionary should live

and relate with their home organization and supporters, I was

unable to ﬁnd any clear direction on how the missionary should

relate with the communities they work amongst.

Perhaps our

own mission preparation programmes echo this lack. ere are

Section two critically reviews the historical engagement of

Christians with Hindus in order to explicate the problematic

of engagement in the Indian context. In the third section, I

look at a few outliers in the Indian mission story. In the ﬁ-

nal section, I will present Udayanacharya’s samvāda model of

engagement between diﬀerent traditions, which I argue can

be the basis of a dialogical missional approach—and which

could be seen as a variation of the inreligionizing model.

Models of Engagement in Mission Studies

Within mission studies, diﬀerent models have emerged that

embody the changing understandings of the self ’s engagement

with the other. We have come a long way from a colonial model

of mission, to an indigenous model of mission, to what Jenkins

has called “reverse mission” in his

e Next Christendom. Two

models that come to mind are inculturation and contextualiza-

tion. e term “inculturation” is used for the ﬁrst time in 1962

and then oﬃcially by Pope John Paul II in 1979.

e term “con-

textualization” had its historic ﬁrst appearance in 1972 in the ecu-

menical publication

Ministry in Context: e ird Mandate Pro-

gramme of the eological Education Fund

(1972). However, these

two models came out of the larger change in the philosophical

climate in academia which has been termed the postmodern turn.

e revolt against universal rationality had begun to ﬂourish

with Nietzsche’s

Genealogy of Morals and was extended by the

works of Lakatos, Feyerabend and Kuhn in the philosophy of

science and Peter Winch in the social sciences. In the 1970s

Jean-Francois Lyotard deﬁned the term “postmodern” as an

“incredulity” for universal rationality.

e focus shifted from

text to the context. e social, political, and existential con-

texts that deﬁned the conditions for the production of knowl-

edge were given supremacy. It was against this background

that both inculturation and contextualization were born.

Aylward Shorter deﬁnes inculturation as “the on-going dialogue

between faith and culture or cultures . . . it is the creative and dy-

namic relationship between the Christian message and a culture

The sole purpose of

inculturation seems to be

“transforming” the culture in order to

bring about a “new creation,”

and in no way is it bothered about the

relationship between the missionary

and those missionized.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Brainerd Prince 89

resources on friendship mission or friendship evangelism that

seek to use friendships as a starting point for the mission. ese

models have strong critiques, and as one of them countered,

“friendships with an agenda are never true friendships.”

Historical Engagement of Christians with

Hindus in India

e main argument put forward in this section is that Christian

traditions historically came to India in three main waves. With

the arrival of the Catholic wave, the relationship progressively

deteriorated between the Christians and the Hindus, culminat-

ing in a breakdown during the Protestant wave. Referring to the

arrival of Christians in India, Frykenberg writes:

From an Indian perspective, arrivals of successive waves of

Christians on the western shores of India, taking place at various

times over centuries, either as refugees and settlers and traders,

can be documented. Such waves can be dated by looking at

royal grants of lands and privileges which Christians received.

These grants, duly certied as deeds or documents, were in-

scribed on copper plates, stone slabs, and/or palm leaf (cadjan).

These were later embellished and reinforced by oral traditions.

While this is not a work of history, a few representative sites

of engagement will be chosen that best showcase the engage-

ment between Hindu and Christian traditions.

The Eastern Wave

Mission historians have claimed that historically Christianity

came to South Asia in the ﬁrst

century, immediately after the

Jesus event, brought by one of Jesus’ twelve disciples, omas.

is is based on writings from the

second and third centuries

that talk about a Christian presence in India. ese writings

reveal that a Jewish Christian named Panpaenus, a mentor to

Clement and Origen, had a determination “to preach Christ

to the Brahmin and philosophers.”

Frykenberg argues for the authenticity of Saint omas’ visit

to India and says that the internal sources found amongst the

Syrian Christians of South India through

carefully preserved oral sagas, literary texts, genealogies,

epigraphic and numismatic data on stone tablets and copper

plates and coins of copper, silver, and gold (as well as bul-

lion), and architectural remains

. . . [give] clearer and more

specic indications of how what are now known as Thomas

Christians, also known as Syrian Christians, came into being

and how they came to be concentrated in the south-west

corner of India, in what is now the state of Kerala.

Our primary interest lies in what these oral traditions have to

say about the Indian reception of the Apostle omas—the

ﬁrst Christian on Indian soil. It is said that the Apostle om-

as predominantly worked amongst Brahmins, unlike the mod-

ern Protestant Mission that predominantly worked among the

lower caste. e legend claims “e rajah of Kodungalur gave

omas permission to preach the gospel and gave him gifts of

money . . . the king also became a Christian.”

Furthermore,

it is claimed that because of his many miracles, omas was

able to make many followers of Jesus out of the Brahmins.

An interesting story, recorded by Zaleski, mentions omas

venturing into the Brahmin quarter. is story follows a miracle

where the Apostle omas throws some water into the air by the

side of a pond in the presence of many Brahmins.

e water

droplets fell back down at omas’ feet in the form of showers

of beautiful ﬂowers. is was a turning point which resulted in

many Brahmins following Christianity. What is interesting to

note is that the water droplets transforming into ﬂowers has huge

spiritual value within the Hindu religious imagination. One could

even say that the miracle was contextualized within the spiritual

language of the Hindus, whereas ﬂowers hold no such signiﬁ-

cance in the ﬁrst century Jewish-Christian religious imagination.

is ﬁrst encounter between Jewish Christianity and South

Indian Brahmins was overall acceptable to the Hindu popu-

lation, so much so that, according to legend, omas built

seven churches: “Kodungalur, Quilon, Chayal, Niranam, Ko-

kamanglam, Parur and Palayur.”

Although there is valid historical evidence for formal church

life in India from



345, there is also evidence that dur-

ing the great Persian persecution from



340 to



401, “a

community of ‘East Syrian’ or ‘Babylonian’ Jewish Christians

landed on the Malabar coast.”

is community of 400 peo-

ple belonged to seventy-two royal families. e local South

Indian king welcomed this community and bestowed on

them high caste privileges. Some of these privileges included

seven kinds of musical instruments and all the honours, and

to travel in a palanquin and that at weddings the women

should whistle with the nger in the mouth as do the women

of kings, and he conferred the privilege of spreading carpets

on the ground and to use sandals and to erect a pandal and

to ride on elephants.

From the historical accounts what is clearly noted is that this

community of Jewish Christians, also called Malankara Naz-

aranis, were enterprising and successful in creating wealth.

Frykenberg writes that “those who had once prospered in

Mesopotamia prospered in India, and were seen as generat-

ing local prosperity wherever they settled; their presence was

courted and coveted by local rulers.”

Water droplets

transforming into owers

has huge spiritual value within the

Hindu religious imagination.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

90 Udayanacharya's Samvāda and the Dialogue of Traditions: A Model of Inreligionization

The Catholic Wave

e second wave of Christianity in South Asia began with

the clerical travellers and culminates with the coming of the

various Catholic orders into the South Asian peninsula. e

era of clerical travellers began with the Islamic Hejra in



622 to the coming of Vasco de Gama in 1498.

Frykenberg

claims that only four visits are noteworthy. e ﬁrst visit,

according to the Anglo-Saxon chronicle, was that of

two monks, “Sigehelm and Aethelstan, who were

sent by King Alfred and who told of their

visit to the tomb of St omas at Mylapore

(Mailapur)” recorded in a report from



883.

e second visit was of John of

Monty Corino, a Franciscan mission-

ary who was sent as a papal emissary to

the Christians in Malabar in



1293.

e third visit was of Friar Ordoric to

Quilon in



1325. Finally, the visit of

Father Jordanus, which occurred in



1321 to



1322.

While we do not have much information on Sigehelm

and Aethelstan’s visits, we are told that the eﬀorts of John of

Monty Corino were so successful that in



1307, he was ap-

pointed as China’s ﬁrst Catholic Archbishop. John of Monty

Corino reports, “I remained in the country of India, wherein

stands the church of St. omas the Apostle, for thirteen

months, and I baptized in diﬀerent places about one hundred

persons.”

us, with John of Monty Corino’s visit, we can see

the beginning of a missionary method in which Christians came

as visitors with the primary motive of converting the locals be-

fore moving on, which is contrary to the settlement approach,

the predominant method of the ﬁrst wave where the Christians

remained on the land.

John of Monty Corino’s observations of the Hindu Indian

people were that they were idolators without having any reg-

ular hours for worship like the Christians. He writes, “they

never join together in worship at any ﬁxed hour, but each goes

to worship when it pleases himself. And so they worship their

idols in any part of their temples, either by day or by night.”

He also took oﬀense at the local Hindu population’s ways of life:

For their daily food they use rice and a little milk; and they

eat grossly like pigs, to wit, with the whole hand or st and

without a spoon. In fact, when they eat their food, they do

look more like pigs than men.

From this, Yule infers that “John was not received in the

houses of Indians of the higher classes.”

From this, we can

see the beginning signs of the impending deterioration of the

relationships between Christians and Hindus.

By the arrival of Friar Ordoric, Christians had become pure

spectators, phenomenologically observing the other without a

sense of empathy or togetherness. For example, Friar Ordoric

observes that where “the blessed omas the Apostle” was bur-

ied, “His church is ﬁlled with idols, and beside it are ﬁfteen

houses of the Nestorians, that is to say Christians but vile and

pestilent heretics.”

Here is a clear example of how Friar Or-

doric referred to omas as blessed, but held a disdain for

the local South Asian population. at he also had

a deep disdain for the local Christians, whom

he calls vile and pestilent heretics, reveals the

binary thinking that had set upon Western

Christians. He also describes the local

church of the Malabar Christians nega-

tively as ﬁlled with idols.

e earliest

Pfarangi (foreign) Christians

in India were not just Catholic, nor just

“Roman” Catholic. ey were profoundly

Portuguese. ey came armed with the Pa-

droado Real which gave them authority from

the Church in Rome to ﬁll clerical positions in

overseas colonial regions, like India.

On 21 June 1481,

Sixtus IV in

Aeterna Regis Clementina summed up all previous

papal bulls with the words:

Navigation in the oceans of recent discovery is restricted to

Portuguese ships. The Portuguese are true lords of lands discov-

ered or yet to be discovered. The Portuguese may freely trade

with unbelievers, even Muslims, provided they do not supply

them with arms or anything of the kind. The Portuguese Crown

may found churches, monasteries, and other places of religious

usage . . . Spiritual Power belongs to Portugal in perpetuity.

e Padroado Mandate opened the doors for a host of monks

and missionaries from diﬀerent orders to come boldly and le-

gitimately to India and do mission work. e Franciscans (600

friars by 1635), the Dominicans (from 1498), the Augustin-

ians (from 1572), and the Jesuits (founded in 1540), repre-

sented by Francis Xavier, came in large numbers, and all these

missionaries were sent along the coastlines and across the

countryside in the inner parts of the Indian subcontinent.

ey converted in large droves the ﬁshermen communities

like the Paravars and Mukkavars who have remained Chris-

tians for over four and a half centuries.

Francis Xavier and

others who did not know the Tamil language, walked from

village to village,

building prayer houses, baptizing children, and drilling

children in rote recitations of the Lord’s Prayer, Ave, Creed,

and Commandments.

These doctrines were to be recited

aloud every morning and evening at the sound of a bell.

Attempts were made to install a kanakkapillai (catechist/ac-

countant) for each village, to keep track of births, deaths,

and marriages for each lineage (vamsha).

Converting the

locals before moving

on, is contrary to the

settlement approach, the

predominant method

the rst wave.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Brainerd Prince 91

However, in 1582, a series of events took place that changed

the status of Roman Catholic missions in India. Stephen

Neill, the historian of Indian church and missions, captures it

well and it is best to quote him at length:

But in 1582 the even tenour of life was disturbed by one of the

most disastrous series of events in the whole history of Roman

Catholic missions in India. Two villages in the extreme south of

the peninsula of Salsette—Cuncolim and Assolna in the spell-

ing used by the Portuguese—had been specially obstinate in

holding fast to the Hindu way and its ceremonies. Early in 1582,

in reprisal for injuries done to a messenger who was carrying

despatches from Cochin to the viceroy, a eet of boats sailed

down from Goa and destroyed the temple at Assolna. At the

same time the captain of Rachol marched down with troops to

Cuncolim; a Jesuit Fr Berno set re to the large temple in the

village; a number of smaller shrines was also destroyed. Then

Fr Berno, with incredible folly, “killed a sacred cow on the spot,

with the double object of deling the holy places and destroy-

ing the object of superstition, and he profaned a sacred tank by

casting into it the intestines of the slaughtered animal.“

The

authorities seem to have been unaware of the lasting fury occa-

sioned by the outrage. In 1583 a visit was paid to Salsette by the

new provincial Rudolf Aquaviva, formerly of the mission to the

Great Mogul, accompanied by a number of priests, some Indian

Christians and a group of Portuguese gentlemen. On 15/25 July

[1583 25 July], the anger of the people broke out in open vio-

lence. Aquaviva, who stood forth as the acknowledged leader,

was the rst to suffer. Then the mob fell on Fr Berno, the object

of their special animosity; the other two priests followed soon

after. A lay brother, Aranha, though terribly wounded, survived

in hiding till the next morning, when he was discovered, killed

and horribly mutilated. Altogether fourteen others were killed,

the bodies were stripped by outcaste menials, thrown together

into a large pit which, this being monsoon time, was full of wa-

ter, and covered over with branches to prevent discovery. When,

the same evening, news of the disaster reached Goa, there was

no limit to the distress and dismay caused by events for which

there was no precedent in the history of the missions.

Many Christians had died at the hands of pirates or in sporadic

outbursts of violence. But so ruthless a massacre, carried out

by the generally kindly and gentle Hindu population, was un-

expected and alarming. It was decided that the bodies of the

martyrs must be recovered and given Christian burial. It fell to

Stephens as rector of the college at Rachol to set about the

recovery of the bodies. At rst the people denied all knowl-

edge, but before long were tricked into agreeing to the sur-

render; the menials carried the bodies to the north bank of the

river, where they were received by the group from Goa and

reverently carried to the church. It was found that the bodies

were so swollen by their immersion in water that it was not

possible to array them in Jesuit robes; but with such order

and ceremony as was possible they were laid to rest. What

follows is far from edifying. Though the fathers pleaded that

vengeance should not be taken on the guilty, fteen of the

leading men who came in to plead for pardon and to promise

friendship were immediately cut down by the soldiery; others

were pursued to the mainland and done to death. The ve

villages concerned were deprived of their liberty, two being

handed over in ef to one Portuguese, and three to another.

is incident depicts the unspoken nexus between the

missionaries and the colonial powers as well as the under-

currents between the missionaries and the native converts.

The Protestant Wave

e ﬁnal wave of Christian mission into India is called the

Modern Missionary Movement where a variety of Protestant

groups came to India. e problematic nature of the Chris-

tian mission to the Hindus in the modern era, one could claim,

lay in the lack of a robust dialogue of traditions between the

Christian and Hindu traditions. Guder argues that any study

of the history of missions and evangelism in the last few centu-

ries would reveal that the missionary movement of the western

Christian traditions were largely accompanied by “the legacy of

western cultural imperialism” which exercised “domination and

cultural control,” thus reﬂecting an absence of the incarnational

model in western mission. He argues that “the western view of

all contexts for mission has been governed solely by western

perspectives” with the assumption that the western way was

synonymous with the way of Christ, which precisely led to the

failure to do mission in the incarnational “Jesus Christ way.”

It is alleged that Christian mission, particularly in its Protestant

evangelical format, has for a long time singularly focused on the

conversion of the missionized Indian to Christianity and that

it does not pay any respect to their inherent Hindu traditions,

texts and practices. In an insightful article on conversion and

Christian mission in India, Claerhout and De Roover have set

forth historical evidence from Portuguese, German and Brit-

ish missionary sources, arguing that Christian missions looked

down on Hindu traditions. ey write:

From the 16th to the 21st century, the Christians have

viewed their encounter with the Hindu traditions as a battle

between Christianity and idolatry . . . Therefore, the Chris-

tians oppose the Hindu traditions to the Christian religion in

terms of the beliefs these “rival religions” proclaim.

Some of the examples they have cited demonstrate the deeply

antagonistic perspective the Christian mission had for Hindu

traditions. e language of “battle,” “rivalry” and “opposition”

The assumption that the western way

was synonymous with

the way of Christ led to the failure to do

mission in the incarnational

“Jesus Christ way.” (Stephen Neill)

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

92 Udayanacharya's Samvāda and the Dialogue of Traditions: A Model of Inreligionization

as Shivadharma his guru, he became a scholar-missionary. His

aim was to become thoroughly Brahmanised, to avoid any word

or deed which might give oﬀence, and to gain complete mastery

of Sanskrit and Tamil learning

(veda).

Acquiring ﬂuency in texts of the Agama and of the Alvar

and Nayanar poets, scrupulously abstaining from all pollution

from deﬁled or tainted things (e.g.,

Xesh), subsisting only

on one simple meal, and wearing the “sacred thread” of the

“twice-born”

(dvija) along with the ochre robe of a sannyasi,

he engaged Vedanta philosophers in public conversations and

debates, and won a following of converts and disciples, in-

cluding his own guru. His manifesto, inscribed on palm leaf

and posted on his house, declared:

I am not a parangi. I was not born in the land of the parangis,

nor was I ever connected with their [lineages] . . . I come

from Rome, where my family holds a rank as respectable as

any rajas in this country.

By cutting oﬀ all links with crude, beef-eating, alcohol-drinking

barbarians from Europe, de Nobili, the “Roman Brahman,”

identiﬁed himself as being Indian and became known as “Tat-

tuwa-Bhodacharia Swami.”

Catholic learning established in Nayaka Madurai, epitomized by

its repository of rare manuscripts at Shembhagannur Monastery,

reached its zenith with the work of the Italian Jesuit Constanzo

Giuseppe Beschi (1680–1747). is sage, also known as Vira-

mamuni Swami or as Dharrya Nathaswami, produced classical

Sangam (Cankam) epics, philosophical treatises, commentaries,

dictionaries, grammars, translations, and tracts for Hindu Chris-

tians and non-Christians alike.

Such works put him in the

forefront of Tamil scholarship. His

Tembavani, an epic of 3,525

tetrastichs of 30 cantos, his commentary on iruvalluvar's Kural,

and his public disputations

with scholars (acharyas) and men-

dicants

(pardarams), won renown. e grandeur of his entourage

matched that of the Shankaracharya of Kanchipuram. Clothed

in a long tunic bordered in scarlet and robed in pale purple, with

ornate slippers, purple-and-white turban, pearl and ruby earrings,

bangles and rings of heavy gold on his wrists and ﬁngers, a carved

staﬀ of inlaid ivory in his hand, he sat in his sumptuous palanquin

upon a tiger skin, with attendants fanning him, holding a purple

silk parasol surmounted by a golden ball to keep the sun from

touching him, and attendants marching before and behind him

lifting high a standard of spread peacock’s feathers (symbolizing

Saraswati, goddess of wisdom); he ostentatiously displayed all the

marks of divine and regal authority. Chanda Saheb, Nawab of

the Carnatic, honoured him in his

durbar. He bestowed the title

of Ismattee Sannyasi upon Beschi, presented him with the inlaid

ivory palanquin of Nawab’s grandfather, and appointed him

di-

wan,

a position which awarded him a tax-exempt estate (inam)

of four villages worth 12,000 rupees income per year.

reveals the binary that existed between Christianity and

Hindu traditions. It is worthwhile looking at a few pieces of

primary evidence as testimonials of antagonism:

In what terms shall I describe the Hindu mythology? There

was never, in any age, nor in any country, a superstition

so cruel, so atrocious and so diabolical as that which has

reigned over this people. It is a personication of evil.

Before me was the land of idolatry, concerning which I had heard

and read so much; and I was now to come into contact with

that mighty system of superstition and cruelty which was hold-

ing millions enslaved in its bonds; to see its hateful rites, and by

the exhibition of the Truth to contend with its dreadful power.

In this brief, the king orders that neither public nor private

“idols” be tolerated on the island of Goa and that severe pun-

ishment must be meted out to those who persist in keeping

them. The houses of people suspected of keeping hidden idols

are to be searched. Heathen festivals are not to be tolerated and

every brahman is to be banished from Goa, Bassein and Diu.

ese words belonging to both European missionaries and

European State representatives reveal the deep antagonism

they had towards Hindu traditions.

Christian Mission Outliers

However, in the history of Christianity in India we also ﬁnd

that there are several instances where Christian missionaries

enjoyed a meaningful experience with Hindus, and they were

able to understand each another in spite of their diﬀerences

and leanings, even during the colonial era.

Whereas Francis Xavier dealt with the lowest, most polluting

segments of Tamil society on the Fisher Coast, Roberto de

Nobili dealt with the highest and purest. Father Robert de

Nobili arrived in Goa, a South Indian state, in 1605,

and

was clear about his spiritual mission which was to “remove

the impression that Christianity was merely a foreign, West-

ern religion.” Towards this goal, he mastered both Sanskrit and

Tamil.

In the shadow of the four towering gateways (gopurams)

of the ancient Minakshi-Sundareswarar Temple, where thou-

sands came each day and where throngs of students from far

corners of the land ﬂocked, a young aristocrat from Italy settled

down in 1606. Here, with Vishvasam and Malaiyappan, as well

De Nobili became a scholar-

missionary. His aim was to become

thoroughly Brahmanised, to avoid any

word or deed which might give

offence, and to gain complete mastery

of Sanskrit and Tamil learning (veda).

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Brainerd Prince 93

as “Bengali Teresa.”

K. P. Kesava Menon, in his forward

to

Christianity in India, described a church typical of the In-

dian Christian tradition as “Hindu in culture, Christian in

religion, and oriental in worship.”

The Samv

da Rules of Mission Engagement

Our study of the historical engagement between Christian

traditions and Hindu traditions in the Indian subcontinent has

revealed problems that acted as deterrents, particularly during the

modern age. While these problems began during the Catholic

wave, it was during the Protestant wave these problems came into

full bloom. One mustn’t forget that the Protestant engagement

happened during the colonial era that had a lopsided power equa-

tion between the imperial Christians and the colonized Hindus.

is inequality of power aﬀected the engagement of traditions.

e recent memory of the colonial encounter continues to cast

a shadow on Christian-Hindu engagement even if in post-

Independence India there has been a reversal of fortunes and pow-

er equations with the Hindus coming to political power in India.

While it is the majoritarian Hindu population that presently dic-

tates politics in India and the Christians are a minority, the long

shadow of the colonial past continues to inﬂuence Christian-

Hindu engagement resulting in an alienation of the Christians.

However, what has remained unchanged is the Christian attitudes

to the Hindu which continue to be colonial, hence the problems

of the Protestant wave have not yet been successfully addressed.

While there are a lot of resources available within the post-

enlightenment Western hermeneutical tradition to envision a

better model of engagement between the Christian and Hindu

traditions, be it in the works of Buber, Levinas, Bakhtin, Ricoeur,

or Macintyre, the primary goal for us is to excavate resources from

within Hindu traditions so that what is proposed will be broadly

acceptable to Hindu traditions, without of course ignoring the

western resources. In other words, the primary source for the pro-

posed new model of engagement will be the Hindu traditions.

e argument presented in this work is that one way of

overcoming the problems that continue to plague Christian-

Hindu relations is to articulate a model of engagement that

Let us look at the example of the German missionary to India,

Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg,

who is also represented by Claerhout

and De Roover as someone whose Christianity is incommensura-

ble with Hindu traditions. Claiming that Ziegenbalg made a diﬀer-

ence between false and true religion, they write, “On the one hand,

the false religion of the heathens consists of sin and error . . . On the

other hand, there is the true religion of the people of God.”

is

they claim with regard to a pamphlet written by Ziegenbalg called

Abominable Heathenism.

Furthermore, in the quote they provide from the pamphlet, they

themselves say that Ziegenbalg’s critique was against

a-jnana

(the absence of knowledge and the antithesis of wisdom) and

all his negative claims were about a-jnana. What is interesting

is that Hindus would totally agree with Ziegenbalg’s negative

description of a-jnana. As a matter of fact, Bhagwat Gita 14:8

clearly delineates the negatives of a-jnana. Of course, the diﬀer-

ence would lie in how Ziegenbalg and the Hindus proposed to

overcome or overthrow a-jnana but not in what it stood for. us,

what Claerhout and De Roover fail to capture is the dialogue

and the comparative work that Ziegenbalg was successfully do-

ing and his creative use of the Hindu term a-jnana in presenting

the Christian gospel as well as the wonderful relationships that

Ziegenbalg had with Hindus such as Modaliappa, a young man

with whom he was a friend for life, a 70-year old blind pandit

Watthiar as well as many other Tamil tutors and scholars includ-

ing Ganapati Wattiyar who was a “converted poet who, having

already become his colleague and friend for some time, also be-

came his partner and research assistant.”

Frykenberg argues that

none of what Ziegenbalg accomplished would have been pos-

sible had Ziegenbalg not enjoyed the conﬁdence and support of

Tamil admirers, colleagues, friends, informants, and teachers.

Indeed, his rapid progress astonished and delighted local

Tamils; and his open and engaging personality quickly won

him popularity among Tamil poets and scholars.

Stephen Neill, the historian, writes that it was not a one-way

process with the missionaries, just as much as they wanted to

change the Hindus, they too got “converted” in the process.

One notable result of these Tamil studies was a change in

Ziegenbalg‘s attitude to the Indian people and to the Hin-

du religion. When he arrived in India, he shared the view

generally held by Europeans that Indians were a barbarous

people, and that their religion was no better than a depraved

superstition . . . But by 1709 he had come to realise that the

Indians are a civilised people; and, as he penetrated more

deeply into their classical writings, he was amazed to dis-

cover the depth of their moral insights and the admirable

style in which their wisdom is expressed.

ere were many other western missionaries as well, for

instance, Mother Teresa who is still highly esteemed in In-

dia. Greene in her biography on Mother Teresa refers to her

When Ziegenbalg arrived in India,

he held the view that their religion

was no better than a depraved

superstition . . . but by 1709 . . . he was

amazed to discover the depth of

their moral insights. (Stephen Neill)

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

94 Udayanacharya's Samvāda and the Dialogue of Traditions: A Model of Inreligionization

is agreeable to both Hindus and Christians. erefore, the

task is to ﬁnd a Hindu model of engagement excavated from

the historical Hindu traditions that not only overcomes the

problems but is also agreeable to the Christians.

If such a model of engagement be found, then it would not

only critique the colonial attitude of Christians towards Hin-

dus but also envision a way forward for future Christian en-

gagement with Hindus. One such sophisticated Hindu mod-

el for the engagement of traditions is found in the works of

the eleventh-century Nyāya scholar, Acharya Udayana.

Although it has been stated more than once that Udayana is

one of the greatest Indian philosophers, unfortunately there

are not very many secondary works on either Udayana or his

works. George Chemparathy, who can be argued to be the

foremost leading scholar on Udayana, says, “Scholars are al-

most unanimous in declaring Udayana to be one of the greatest

of Indian philosophers.” In the Nyāya-Vaisesika school itself, to

which he belongs, he occupies a singular position of authority

and renown. Flourishing at the period of transition from the

Older Nyāya to the New (Navya-Nyāya), he shines as an unri-

valled master of the former and an inspiring herald of the latter.

His importance in the history of Nyāya-Vaiśesika can be

gauged by the attitude towards him of later writers, from his

own school as well as from other schools. While he became

for his own school a recognized authority who is often re-

ferred to by the mere title of

cārya . . .

Furthermore, Karuvelil refers to him as “. . . Udayana, the

great Naiyāyika.” With regard to the signiﬁcance of Udaya-

na’s work, Karuvelil writes,

Expounding the Nyāya system, he presents his work

(Atmatattvaviveka) as the “ultimate Ved

ānta” (caramavedānta)

wherein all the other systems of thought, including Advaita

Ved

ānta, are subsumed as preliminary stages of it.

In Laine’s view Udayana is not just a “great eleventh century

Nyāya philosopher” but also “an extremely skillful philosopher”

who had the “ability to include a wide range of philosophical

topics under the aegis of his stated

prayojana [stated purpose].”

e logical competency of Udayana seems to have been

generally accepted. To mention but one Indian writer of

the sixteenth century, Sāyana Mādhava, the author of the

Sarvadarśanasamgraha, speaks of him not only as “one whose

fame had spread everywhere”

(viśvavikhyātakīrtih), but also

as “one who has seen the opposite shore of the ocean of the

principles of logic

(nyāyanayapārāvārapāradrk), an epithet

which aptly expresses his thorough knowledge of logic.”

In this section, I will explore the samvāda rules of engagement

that have historically provided a framework for dialogue

between traditions. What is unique is that the Brahmanical

Hindu tradition had “a shared terminology and shared

procedural assumptions that allowed diﬀerent Brahmanical

schools to dialogue” and the dialogue also happened with

other established traditions like the Buddhist and Jain tra-

ditions.

In other words, there was freedom to disagree and

debate with those belonging to another Hindu school or tra-

dition or even with other non-Hindu religious traditions.

I would like to present the samvāda tradition of philosophical

engagement arising out of the Hindu traditions that provided

the rules of engagement for dialogue between diﬀerent tradi-

tions of enquiry. Samvāda from the Sanskrit,

sam for “together”

and

vāda for “word,” means “wording together” or “discoursing

together” and could be used to mean “dialogue.”

However, very little work has been done on excavating the

concept of samvāda out of the Indian classical traditions par-

ticularly for methodological value. A pioneering work on the

origins of samvāda was a paper presented by Laurie Patton

entitled “Samvāda: A Literary Resource for Conﬂict Negotia-

tion in Classical India,” in

Evam: Forum on Indian Represen-

tations

(Delhi: Samvāda India, 2003), where she puts forward

the genealogy of the term as well as gave examples of its use in

classical Indian texts. Patton also translates samvāda as “inter-

logue” in a co-authored article entitled

Hinduism with Others:

Interlogue

(2006).

Apart from Patton’s work, there is scarcely any other work on

samvāda, although Daya Krishna has a book by the name of

Samvada: A Dialogue between Two Philosophical Traditions

(1991), which does not refer explicitly to the classical tradition

of samvāda itself, but rather captures a contemporary dialogue

held in Pune in 1983, between Indian philosophers trained in

the Western tradition and those trained in the classical Indian

tradition of philosophizing.

e only other prominent usage is by John Clayton, the

philosopher of religion, whose use of samvāda provides the

rules of engagement for dialogue from an Indian intellectual

point of view. But before we look at Clayton’s usage, a quick

summary of the historical excavation of samvāda done by

Patton would be useful.

There was freedom to disagree and

debate with those belonging to

another Hindu school

or tradition or even with other

non-Hindu religious traditions.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Brainerd Prince 95

the enquiring self, its rationality, its authoritative texts, the

narrative within which these texts have meaning as well as

its ultimate concerns. One can only distinguish the

other, if one has some clarity on oneself. I have

not yet dwelt on the language of tradition or

parampara which is central to this know-

ing. Secondly, to understand the other in

their tradition of enquiry and rational-

ity. To understand the other is similar to

learning a new language, the language

of the other’s tradition. Macintyre calls

it as possessing “second ﬁrst languages”

or being “polyglossic” à la Bakhtin, and

similar to Bhabha’s “hybridity.” It is only

after this understanding of the other that one

can perform the act of living together with the

other as dialogue. Now to summarise the three ele-

ments of samvāda: ﬁrst, know oneself, secondly, understand

the other, and ﬁnally, dialogue as living together.

ere is clear resemblance between the vāda-tradition and

the dialogical-hermeneutics that is at an infant stage of de-

velopment within the western intellectual tradition. is sim-

ilarity is attested by Flood with regard to his own work in the

academic study of religion that the vāda-tradition is “wholly

in accord with the dialogical model I wish to develop in the

coming chapters” for the study of religion.

e samvāda form of dialogue historically has brought into

dialogue diﬀerent intellectual and religious traditions pri-

marily to delineate the boundaries of the discourse between

rival schools of Vedic textual exegesis, in ways that clariﬁed

diﬀerence and debate in South Asia.

is is an example of

the dialogical freedom that Hindu traditions have historically

possessed. ere is freedom to learn about another religious

tradition, including its scriptures and rationality at a proﬁ-

ciency that is acceptable to an adherent of that tradition. One

also had the freedom to dialogue and converse with those of

other religious traditions about religious matters.

A Model of Inreligionization

I would like to end by elucidating the “dialogue of traditions”

approach which can be used as the process that delivers in-

religionization. is model is built upon Udayana’s samvāda

rules of engagement as well as the literature on hermeneutical

thought which is not reviewed here for the sake of brevity.

e “dialogue of traditions”

can be said to have ﬁve stages,

which when completed successfully would have accomplished

the vision of inreligionization. “Incommensurability of tradi-

tions” can be seen as stage one and as the starting point. At this

beginning point, the Christian tradition that is entering into

Patton argues that the Brahmanas used samvāda to mean “bar-

gain” and the

Dharma Sutras used it to mean “conversation,

discussion, or dialogue.” In the

Ramayana, it means an

account or an incident story and in the

Mahab-

harata

it has the added meaning of dispute.

In the

Mimamsa sutras it means agree-

ment or accord and similarly in the

Tan-

travartika

(1.2.22; 1.2.47) and the Jain

text

Prabandhacintamani (52.4). Patton

goes on to give four examples which are

“named as samvāda by early and classi-

cal Hindu texts themselves” and hence

she argues that samvāda is indeed an “in-

digenous genre.” But she goes on to state

that samvāda certainly “does not have a tradi-

tion of criticism behind it” like classical schools

of philosophy and suggests that “it is never too late

to start one.” However, here Patton appears to be unaware of

the development of the concept of samvāda and its use in the

medieval era, particularly from the eleventh century onwards.

Clayton has precisely worked out the use of samvāda as a

method for philosophical discussion and debate between dif-

ferent philosophical traditions from its historical usage in such

discussions between diﬀerent strands of the Indian intellectual

tradition. Clayton illustrates the structure of a

vāda or inter-

tradition debate, through the Buddhist-Hindu debates found

in the eleventh century Udayana’s treatise

Atmatattvaviveka.

He argues that the structure of a samvāda debate consisted of

two parts—negative and positive.

e conventions governing

the negative component, the goal of which was to undermine

the opponent’s position, were: (a) a presentation of a “fair state-

ment” of the opponent’s position, (b) the arguments in its fa-

vour, and ﬁnally, (c) the arguments that can be used against it.

What is interesting here is, as Clayton observes, this negative

component was carried out completely in accordance with the

opponent’s rationality. Even in citing authorities, one had to use

texts that were authoritative for the opponent. e conventions

governing the positive component, the goal of which was to

oﬀer arguments in favour of one’s position, dictated that proofs

could be supplied that were either (a) based on reasons shared

with the opponent, or (b) were “tradition-speciﬁc reasons that

were not acknowledged as reasons by one’s opponents.”

is

clariﬁes the diﬀerence between the two traditions.

I would like to term this act of dialogue that seeks to clarify

the other and engage with the diﬀerence of the other and

even make a contribution to inform the epistemological cri-

sis in the other’s tradition of enquiry as the very act of liv-

ing together. However, this is preceded by two prior acts that

are necessary to be able to conduct this dialogue. First, to

know oneself, in a sense know the traditions that construct

To understand

the other is similar

to learning

a new language,

the language of the

other’s tradition.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

96 Udayanacharya's Samvāda and the Dialogue of Traditions: A Model of Inreligionization

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

in the “Integration of traditions” where a new tradition is born.

is new tradition sublates both the Christian and the other

traditions and births a new ﬂavour that entails both. is newly

birthed tradition can be called their very own by both Chris-

tians and the other with whom this process of “dialogue of tra-

ditions” engagement has happened leading to inreligionization.

Here is a model of dialogue and engagement that is homegrown

in the Hindu world and gives clear instructions on how diﬀer-

ent religious traditions should engage with one another. If the

Christian missionaries were to follow the samvāda model of

dialogue, I believe that not only can the challenges and prob-

lems that have been raised in the history of missions in India be

avoided, but without compromising on our beliefs, Christians

can meaningfully engage with Hindus.

IJFM

an engagement with another religious tradition recognises that

at the point of beginning, the “other” tradition is very diﬀerent

from one’s own, to an extent, one is even unable to understand

it at ﬁrst blush. is incommensurable starting point is impor-

tant as it protects the other from being subsumed by the Chris-

tian tradition and re-invented in its own image.

e second stage consists of “Imagination of the Other” and

here the Christian makes a dedicated eﬀort to learn the other’s

tradition. He learns it so well that the other tradition becomes

like a “second mother tongue.” e third stage “Inhabitation of

Tradition” builds on the second, and now not only gets to “know

and learn” about the other but also takes a further step and par-

ticipates in the other’s tradition. is enables the Christian to

truly and empathetically walk in the other’s shoes and makes

the other’s tradition as their own. It is only after this level of en-

gagement that one is able to exercise “Interrogation” and criti-

cally engage with the other. During this stage, one has earned

the right to ask the tough questions, discern similarities and dif-

ferences between traditions and even pass judgement over tra-

ditions in a comparative sense. Finally, this process culminates

Endnotes

is paper was presented at the Ralph D. Winter Memorial Lectureship (October 2023, Pasadena, CA) and speciﬁcally was a response to

Kang-San Tan’s proposal of the inreligionization model.

Timothy J. Gorringe, Furthering Humanity: A eology of Culture (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), 199.

Jean-Francois Lyotard, Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoﬀ Benninton and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University

of Minnesota Press, 1984), xxxiv, 7.

Aylward Shorter, Toward a eology of Inculturation (London: Geoﬀrey Chapman, 1988), 11.

Pedro Arrupe, “Letter to the Whole Society on Inculturation,” in Aixala (ed.), Vol. 3 (1978), 172.

Darrell L. Whiteman, “Contextualization: e theory, the gap, the challenge,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 21/1 (1997), 2–6.

Stephen B. Bevans and Katalina Tahaafe-Williams (eds.), Contextual eology for the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge: James Clarke, 2012), 9.

Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual eology, 2nd ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2002), 3–4.

Bevans, Models of Contextual eology, 4.

Missionary Handbook, Commission to Every Nation Canada (2016), accessed April 15, 2018, http://cten.org/wp-content/

uploads/2016/01/CTENC-Handbook-2016-01.pdf; Amos R. Wells,

e Missionary Manual: A Handbook of Methods for Missionary

Work in Young People’s Societies

(Wilmore, KY: First Fruits Press, 2015).

Karina Kreminski, “e Problem with ‘Friendship Evangelism,’” Missio Alliance (2016), accessed on 15th April, 2018, http://www.

missioalliance.org/problem-friendship-evangelism/.

Robert Eric Frykenberg, Christianity in India, From Beginnings to the Present, eds. Henry and Owen Chadwick, Oxford History Of e

Christian Church (series), (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 107.

Frykenberg, 103.

Frykenberg, 99.

Susan Visvanathan, “e Legends of St. omas in Kerala,” India International Centre Quarterly 22, no. 2/3 (1995): 29.

Ladislas Michel Zaleski, e Apostle St omas in India (Mangalore: Codialbail Press, 1912).

Visvanathan, “e Legends of St. omas in Kerala,” 30.

Frykenberg, Christianity in India, 108.

Visvanathan, “e Legends of St. omas in Kerala,” 32.

Frykenberg, Christianity in India, 110.

Frykenberg, 117.

Frykenberg, 118.

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Brainerd Prince 97

Cathay and the Way ither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol. 3, trans. and ed. Sir Henry Yule, 1st ed. (Oxford: Hakluyt

Society, 1866), 64; (See also the newer edition, London: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

Yule, Cathay and the Way ither, 64.

Frykenberg, Christianity in India, 118.

Frykenberg, 127.

Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India: e Beginnings to

1707 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 37–38,

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511520556.

Frykenberg, Christianity in India, 129.

Frykenberg, 137–38.

Frykenberg, 138.

Neill, A History of Christianity in India, 239.

Neill, 240.

Sarah Claerhout and Jakob De Roover, “e Question of Conversion in India,”Economic and Political Weekly40, no. 28 (2005): 3048-055. 3051.

Lawrence Kitzan, “e London Missionary Society and the Problem of Conversion in India and China, 1804-1834,” in Canadian Journal of His-

tory,

1970: 31, cited in Claerhout and Jakob De Roover, “e Question of Conversion in India,”Economic and Political Weekly40, no. 28, 3051.

Kitzan, “e London Missionary Society,” 29, cited in “e Question of Conversion,” 3050.

Donald F. Lach, Asia In e Making of Europe Vol 1: e Century of Discovery (Chicago: e University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1965),

239–40, cited in Claerhout and De Roover, “e Question of Conversion in India,”

Economic and Political Weekly40, no. 28, 3049.

Anand Amaladass, S. J. and Francis X. Clooney, S. J, Preaching Wisdom to the Wise ree Treatises by Roberto de Nobili, S. J. Missionary,

Scholar and Saint in 17th Century India,

Trans. (Chennai: Satya Nilayam Publications, 2005), 1.

Amaladass, S. J. and Clooney, S. J, Preaching Wisdom to the Wise, 1.

Frykenberg, Christianity in India, 139.

Frykenberg, 139.

Frykenberg, 140.

Frykenberg, 147.

Claerhout and De Roover, “e Question of Conversion in India,”Economic and Political Weekly40, no. 28, 3050.

Claerhout and De Roover, 3050.

Frykenberg, Christianity in India, 148.

Frykenberg, 148.

Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India 1707–1858 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3.

Meg Greene, Mother Teresa: A Biography (London: Greenwood Press, 2004), 18.

Bob Robinson, Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis and eological Critique of the Hindu-Christian Encounter in India (Oxford: Regnum

Books International, 2004), 2; K. P. Kesava Menon,

Christianity in India, eds. A. C. Perumalil and E. R. Hambye (Allepey: Prakam, 1972).

George Chemparathy, An Indian Rational eology: Introduction to Udayana’s Nyāyakusumāñjali (Vienna, 1972), 25.

George V Karuvelil, “Absolutism to Ultimacy: Rhetoric and Reality of Religious Pluralism,” eological Studies, Vol. 73 (2012): 62.

Joy Laine, “Udayana’s refutation of the Buddhist thesis of momentariness in the Atmatattvaviveka,” Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 26 (1998): 51–52.

Chemparathy, An Indian Rational eology, 27.

Gavin Flood, e Ascetic Self: Subjectivity, Memory and Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 65.

Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad, Laurie L. Patton and Kala Acharya, “Hinduism with Others : Interlogue,” in John Stratton Hawley and

Vasudha Narayanan (eds.),

e Life of Hinduism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).

Daya Krishna, “Samvada, a Dialogue between Two Philosophical Traditions” (Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research in associa-

tion with Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1983), xi.

John Clayton, Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-Cultural Philosophy of Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

Based upon a 15th century Tibetan Buddhist account, King gives a more detailed structure of the vāda-tradition with eight basic steps in

Richard King, Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist ought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), 134–35.

John Clayton, Religions, Reasons and Gods, 38–39.

Gavin Flood, Beyond Phenomenology: Rethinking the Study of Religion (London: Cassell, 1999), 57.

Clayton (pp. 44–47) oﬀers three sources of the vāda-tradition: ﬁrst, it was developed within the Brahmanical circles, arising from “the

question-and-answer methods of instruction in the meaning of Vedic ritual texts” (J. C. Heesterman, “On the Origins of the Nāstika,”

WZKSO 12–13 (1968–69): 171–185; and Esther A. Solomon, Indian Dialectics: Methods of Philosophical Discussion, Research Series/

Sheth B. J. Institute of Learning and Research (Ahmedabad, Gujarat: Gujarat Vidya Sabha, 1978), 21ﬀ.). Secondly, it was developed

from ancient methods for resolving legal disputes and medical practitioners’ methods for agreeing to a diagnosis/treatment (45) and,

ﬁnally, in philosophical dialectic, independent of Brahmanic circles, within Jaina and Buddhist groups “according to their own distinctive

procedures and categories which eventually fed into the mainstream tradition of vāda” (47). Clayton,

Religions, Reasons and Gods, 44–47.

Brainerd Prince, e Integral Philosophy of Aurobindo: Hermeneutics and the Study of Religion, Hindu Studies Series (Oxford: Routledge, 2017).

Attend. Comprehend. Engage.

Perspectives is a fteen-lesson

education course exploring dierent

aspects of God’s global purpose in a

multi-faceted learning experience.

www.perspectives.org

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 99

Anna Travis, along with her family,

has lived most of her adult life in Mus-

lim communities, and has twice lived

with Muslim families. Her ministry

involvement has included outreach,

discipleship, community development,

healing prayer, and intercessory prayer.

Anna has authored and coauthored

journal articles and chapters in books

as well as a training manual on in-

ner healing and deliverance that has

been translated into several languages.

Along with her husband, she spends

much of each year coaching and train-

ing throughout the Muslim world. She

holds an MA in intercultural studies

from Fuller eological Seminary.

Beyond Contexualization

y family and I had the privilege of working in an Asian Muslim

community for twenty-two years. It was there that we met a

wonderful, winsome Muslim woman we call Fatima.

is paper

tells the story of how Fatima came to know and follow

Isa al-Masih (Jesus the

Messiah) and led many of her family and friends to know and follow Jesus as

well. Watching what God is doing in the life of Fatima to this very day has

impacted me deeply.

First, before sharing this story, and a bit of my own, I

would like to pause and pray for Fatima, her family, and friends.

Please join me:

“O God, we all, with one heart, now bring to you Fatima and friends,

as we consider what you are doing in and through them. Protect them,

comfort them, strengthen them, and give clear leading to them in all

things. rough Jesus we pray, Amen.”

Before telling the story of Fatima and my history with Muslims, I would like to

explain how I will be using several terms. e ﬁrst term is “Christian.” Diﬀerent

individuals and groups use the term Christian in diﬀerent ways, sometimes as a

noun and sometimes as an adjective.

For example, evangelical Christians tend to use the word Christian to refer to

someone who is a serious disciple of Jesus or someone who is “born again.” It is

not uncommon to hear evangelicals say, “I became a Christian at age twenty-

ﬁve.” Whether having grown up as a nominal member of a church or not, the

term “becoming a Christian” refers to the point in time when the person made

a serious commitment to be devoted to Christ.

Others use the term Christian simply to describe individuals’ personal belief

system. Whether living the life of serious disciples of Jesus or not, at least in

terms of their beliefs, they could be classiﬁed as “Christian” (i.e., adhering to

church creeds or doctrines).

37:2 Summer 2020

The Faith of Fatima:

A Case Study of Muslim Followers of Jesus

by Anna Travis

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

100 The Faith of Fatima: A Case Study of Muslim Followers of Jesus

then laid in the middle of the living room, with everyone sitting

in a circle around the body. e person from the mosque would

always say:

“

Hopefully this person’s good works are enough to

bring him straight to the side of God. We all

need to remember—the day of death will

come for each of us. One day your body

will be wrapped in white cloth and will

be laid in the middle of the living

room. So, you need to remember Allah

every day. Wherever you are, you must

think of God. And whatever happens,

don’t die, unless you die inside Islam.

”

At the end of the funeral, everyone would

greet each other before leaving. I would

get back to my house just down the block,

barely making it into the door, before bursting

into tears. “Lord! How are these people going to

ﬁnd Jesus when they hear this over and over again—that

they have to stay inside Islam?” I would cry out to God, pour

my heart out to God. e sense I got was that somehow the

Lord would meet them inside Islam.

During those years, we and our team were involved in a

variety of what we call pre-movement activities that we

were convinced would be necessary to see a breakthrough.

is included Scripture translation, intercessory prayer,

focused time with Muslims, praying for the sick, the found-

ing of NGOs to address community needs, and culturally-

appropriate outreach.

Meanwhile those years were also full of listening to our

neighbors’ points of view. Here are a few examples:

“When you talk about God, please remember that we

don’t need your religion. We already have a religion, unlike

people in other parts of the country who do not yet have

a religion.” (ey were referring to groups they deemed

tribal, animists, or who were following folk beliefs.)

“We are happy to receive prayer from you, yes, even if you

pray to God through Jesus, peace be upon him. We know

that all prayer goes up to God, and God decides which

prayers he will answer.”

“If we hear you refer to one of the prophets by the wrong

name, it aﬃrms our view that what your group believes is

incorrect.” Note: is came up when I was reading some Old

Testament passages with a Muslim friend, using the main

translation available at the time. In this translation, “Abra-

ham” is used, whereas Muslims say “Ibrahim.” All the more

impactful is the name we use for Jesus—is it the foreign-

sounding name used by Christians, or is it his familiar Arabic

name, Isa? Fortunately, in terms of communication in our

country of residence, as in many Arabic-speaking countries,

Christians and Muslims alike use the term “Allah” for God.

Yet others, however, use the term simply to mean one’s aﬃliation

or socioreligious identity. In this case, it does not matter what

one may personally spiritually believe. What makes a person

“Christian” would be factors such as family heritage, ethnic

background or church / religious membership or af-

ﬁliation.

Worldwide, this is the way that the word

Christian is most often used.

is is why North

African Muslims, for instance, would make

the blanket statement, “French are Chris-

tians” or how, for example, a national cen-

sus could conclude that the United States

is 70% Christian.

roughout this paper, I will use the

term “Christian” and “Christianity” to re-

fer to people’s identity and religious aﬃli-

ation, not necessarily their personal spiritual

beliefs. I will use the term “follower of Jesus” or

“Christ-follower” to refer to one’s personal spiritual be-

liefs. erefore, if Muslims or Jews choose to follow Jesus

as risen Savior but do not go through the additional step of

“changing religions,” I will refer to them as Muslim followers

of Jesus, not “Christian Muslims” or Jewish followers of Jesus,

not “Christian Jews.”

Likewise, when I refer to someone as “Muslim” or part of the

Islamic community, I am referring to aﬃliation and identity,

not necessarily that individual’s personal beliefs or practices.

My Story: Formative Years Living with Muslims

We arrived in the country where we hoped to share the good

news of the Kingdom of Jesus with Muslims, with a commit-

ment to live at ﬁrst with a local pre-Jesus-following Muslim

family, following the advice of mission linguists Tom and

Betty Sue Brewster.

We were able to live for several months

with two diﬀerent families, and then moved into a house in

a tight-knit Muslim community. Because the houses in the

neighborhood were so close to each other, it felt like we were

renting a few rooms in a big house, where sound easily trav-

eled, and our neighbors kept a close and loving eye on us.

We ended up staying there for seventeen years. We participated

in community life—attending weddings, visiting the sick, and

celebrating holidays with our neighbors. We learned the lan-

guage and made precious friends. But the most impactful thing

for me in living for seventeen years in that community was

attending funerals.

When a person in our neighborhood would die, all the people

on our block would gather around the family. e Muslim

leaders from the mosque would come. ey would make sure

the body was quickly washed and wrapped in white cloth, and

And whatever

happens, don’t die,

unless you die

inside Islam.

(a Muslim leader)

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Anna Travis 101

After those long, life-changing years, the time came to move

from that neighborhood to another part of our city.

Fatima’s Story: Following Jesus as a Muslim

At that time, we were introduced to Fatima. What a privilege

to get to know this woman, a practicing Muslim, who was

actually following Jesus, and already very familiar with the

New Testament. She would share her life with me. I would

learn from her. I would share things that it seemed God was

putting on my heart for her. We did inner healing together.

She would go over the hurts of her childhood. At one point,

the power of the Lord was so strong when we were pray-

ing together that an evil spirit spontaneously left this godly

woman. She exclaimed, “It’s gone, it’s gone!” Looking back, I

am convinced the Lord was empowering her for what he had

for her in the years ahead.

When Fatima was young, she, her siblings, parents and

grandparents were part of a multi-generational household.

Interestingly, her grandfather would often take her aside and say,

“Fatima, one day, the truth of Allah will come to Islam.” She, at

the time, did not know what he could have been talking about.

When Fatima got a little bit older, she had to quit school to

go to work to help her family survive, and she ended up work-

ing for foreigners. She married at an early age and continued

to work. One of her employers encouraged her to convert to

Christianity when she was showing an interest in Jesus. Her

husband and her father told her, “No, no, you cannot convert.

You have to stop working there.” It turned out that she was

able to keep that job only when her employer agreed to not

let national believers come around to try to inﬂuence her to

come into Christianity. Still, those seeds had been planted.

Later, she worked for another foreign family and began to

study the Bible there. By this point, she and her husband had

a son. One time that son was very sick in the hospital and

Christians came to pray for him. Miraculously he was healed,

and soon was discharged from the hospital.

Fatima’s interest in Jesus grew as she saw God heal her son,

and she continued even more to diligently read the Bible.

While she was working at her employer’s home, an Asian

pastor came to stay there for a while and noticed that she was

reading the Bible on her lunch break.

He said, “Fatima, what is that you’re reading?”

“Oh, it’s the New Testament.”

“What do you think about Jesus?”

“Jesus is wonderful.”

e pastor said, “Well, have you become his follower?”

“No, I can’t become his follower.”

“Why is that?”

“I’m a Muslim, and both my husband and my father have

forbidden me to become a Christian and be baptized.”

is Asian pastor wisely said, “Fatima, actually the Lord

wants to meet you right where you are. You can become

a follower of Jesus just as you are. It’s not religion that

saves; it’s Jesus who saves us.”

“Really? I didn’t understand this! I would love to become

his follower.”

at day she decided to follow Jesus, and as she tells her

story she says,

“Whoosh, the spirit of God entered my heart!”

Fatima shared her experience with her son who had been

healed. And she explained to her mother what had happened

to her. Now there were three in the family following Jesus

together. Two or three friends had also been reading the New

Testament, and this small number grew quietly in their faith

for a number of years.

When Fatima and I became friends, we prayed together for

her husband, her father, and other close friends and family

members who often came to mind. When her husband, and

then her father decided to follow Jesus, we rejoiced togeth-

er—the very two men who years earlier had forbidden her to

become a Christian, now walked together with her in follow-

ing Jesus as Muslims.

Ideas of leaving Islam, joining Christianity, no longer calling

herself Muslim, attending a local church, singing Christian

hymns or songs, meeting on Sundays, celebrating Christmas,

removing her head covering in public, eating pork, changing

her name, calling Jesus by his foreign name (which the na-

tional Christians did, both verbally and in their Bible transla-

tion), or labelling a friend or family member an “unbeliever”—

never came up. Fatima recognized that what her grandfather

had spoken about—that someday the truth of God will come

to Islam—had started to become a reality for her.

The Lord wants to meet you

right where you are. You can become

a follower of Jesus just as you are.

It’s not religion that saves;

it’s Jesus who saves us.

(An Asian pastor)

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

102 The Faith of Fatima: A Case Study of Muslim Followers of Jesus

Fatima began explaining more clearly to friends and

acquaintances, as the opportunity arose, what it was like for

her to follow Jesus as a Muslim. About this time, we left the

country for about three months. When we returned, Fatima had

gathered ten people to study the New Testament together every

week. She had been asking, “Have you ever read the

four holy books?” She found this to be a natu-

ral question, since oﬃcially Islam claims the

Taurat (the ﬁrst ﬁve books of the Old Tes-

tament, or often viewed as the entire Old

Testament),

Zabur (Psalms), the Injil

(New Testament), and the

Qur’an as holy

Scripture. e Torah, Psalms and New

Testament are referred to as the “previ-

ous books.” Many would answer that they

had enough trouble reading the one—the

Qur’an—and didn’t want to look at the other

holy books. Yet, other people did show interest,

and now ten were regularly reading together.

An Indigenous, Multiplying Ecclesia is Birthed

One person in this group of ten we call Yusuf. We had been

doing our best to introduce Jesus to Yusuf for a number of

years, and he had expressed little interest. However, two years

before, Yusuf had become extremely angry over an oﬀense

committed by a stranger and was not acting himself. My

husband asked Yusuf if he would like prayer, and the Lord

worked powerfully such that a demon clearly left Yusuf ’s life,

and he experienced immediate relief from the anger. Oth-

er than that experience, he did not appear to be spiritually

hungry or open.

Now, when we saw Yusuf after returning from our three

months away, he was obviously quite joyous about something.

He said, “I’ve become a follower of Isa the Messiah!” He went

on to explain that he had been regularly gathering to read the

New Testament, and that he felt like a new person. We asked

him, “Is this not the same thing we’ve been talking about for

the last few years?” Yusuf explained, “Yes, yes, the same. But

when you were talking about Jesus, I thought you were try-

ing to get me to join your church. My brother left Islam and

entered Christianity when he married a Christian woman,

and the family hardly speaks to him. No way would I want to

join a church.”

e humorous thing is that we were not even attending a

formal church at the time. Yet Yusuf could not help but as-

sume that as we explained the good news about Jesus, we

expected him to leave his religious community and join a dif-

ferent group. Interestingly, Yusuf never performed the formal

prayers (most people we knew prayed at least once a day, if

not more). Yusuf did not attend the mosque and never fasted.

During the (Islamic) month of fasting, when our other male

neighbors would congregate outside for the countdown of the

last few minutes till it was time to break the fast and have a

smoke, Yusuf would chuckle and light up a cigarette right in

front of them. Yet the importance of religious identity for

this utterly nominal Muslim was enough to keep

him from deciding to follow Jesus. Yusuf ex-

plained to us, “When you prayed with me

and the evil spirit left me, I knew Jesus is

the Way. But I couldn’t make the deci-

sion to follow Jesus until I saw the ex-

ample of Fatima’s life.”

As this group shared their new life with

others, other groups started forming.

ey would choose a passage of the New

Testament, sometimes reading it out loud

two and three times. ey would discuss how

to apply what they read, pray for each other, and

eat a snack. Later they started pooling small contributions

voluntarily to help needy people in the neighborhood.

As others were hearing about these groups, they would often

ask two questions. First, “If I join this group, am I going to be

apostate?” (at is, must I leave Islam and become a Chris-

tian?) Second, “If I join this group, am I going to be worship-

ping more than one God?”

e members of the groups would answer,

“No and no. God, who caused us to be born inside the

community of Islam, gives us peace and the desire to stay,

so we can remain connected to our families, and explain

this new life. We are not leaving to join a diﬀerent reli-

gion. And we know there is only one God. We believe in

the one true God, and in Jesus the Messiah whom he has

sent to us.”

at seemed to be enough to address their concerns, such

that a good number of new people were joining or forming

new groups.

When people were sick, people from the group would pray.

Sometimes a person was healed; other times healing did not

come. One time, one of the early followers of Jesus said to

those around his death bed, “Jesus is here to pick me up.”

is started happening more often when someone was dy-

ing. Several hours before death, the person would say, “Jesus

is here to pick me up.” eir understanding is that it is as if

a cord the size of a single piece of hair divided into seven is

stretched over a deep chasm, and Jesus is the one who takes

them across, safely to the side of God. How could they ever

do this on their own? ey explain that they need Jesus.

“If I join this group

am I going to be

apostate? Am I going to

be worshipping more

than one god?“

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Anna Travis 103

Another group formed a little bit outside the city. e man

who was inviting his family and friends to read the New Tes-

tament told Fatima a story from his childhood. “Back in the

day, my father told me, ‘One day, someone will talk about the

truth of Allah coming into Islam. You must listen.’” He had

not heard Fatima’s story about her grandfather repeatedly

saying a similar thing. I wonder how many Muslims in the

world have heard something like this from the Spirit of God.

It must be said that the organic nature of this work of God

has not come about without deliberate choices at key junc-

tures. I will share a handful of examples.

One time a mosque leader from a town several hours away

got wind that his mosque members were over at a neighbor’s

house regularly reading the New Testament. He marched over

to the house and with anger, declared the meeting to be “for-

bidden.” e group texted Fatima to ask her to make a visit,

sooner rather than later. She went to the town with two or

three friends to get to know this mosque leader. With humor

and humility, she thanked him for his concern, and asked for

his prayers and blessing. She explained that his mosque mem-

bers would remain faithful attenders and would cause him no

trouble. ey were simply studying the very books that Islam

instructed them to study

(Taurat, Zabur, Injil and Qur’an),

and of course she knew he would agree and support the idea.

By the grace of God, the problem was solved.

Another time, a neighbor asked one of the members of a

newer group what on earth they were doing in those meetings.

Why was there not the usual chanting of the ﬁrst

surah of the

Qur’an? After talking together, this group decided to invite any

neighbor to join at any time, and to chant the ﬁrst surah to-

gether at the beginning of each meeting. Praise God, the con-

tents of that portion of the

Qur’an

are easily interpreted to be

in line with the Bible, so their conscience before God was clear.

ese Jesus followers ﬁnd it necessary from time to time,

often in the ﬁrst year of their new life, to resist accusations

that they have become Christians, that they are reading a

forbidden holy book, that they are leaving Islam, or the like.

ey remind anyone daring to complain in this way that

their families are Muslim, and they are too. ey continue to

fast during

Ramadan, they celebrate Muslim holidays (not

Christian ones), they continue to attend Muslim functions as

much as they always have (not Christian ones, especially not

Christian mission conferences), they continue to keep their

Muslim personal names, diet and dress standards, and most

important of all, they call themselves Muslims. At the same

time, they remind each other that any person who follows

Jesus is their brother or sister. No speaking ill of Christians

is allowed (although this is the norm in their communities,

given common views of unkind treatment of less fortunate

Muslims by very well-to-do Christian employers and busi-

ness owners). Fatima even told us one time that she views

Jews who follow Jesus as her brothers and sisters! (e nega-

tive view of Muslims toward Jews in this part of the world

cannot be overstated, although no one we know has ever per-

sonally met a Jewish person.)

With all the gracious continuing of so many aspects of

Muslim life as they follow Jesus, there is at least one common

practice that Fatima and friends are fanatical about eradi-

cating: the practice of looking to spiritual powers outside of

their devotion to God through Jesus. ough not all Muslim

Jesus followers we know of have been involved with occult

practitioners before they decided to follow Jesus, many have.

ough their Muslim religious leaders remind them that it

is forbidden, often out of their desire or desperation, many

visit mystical people who pronounce curses toward enemies,

infuse objects with protective powers, and sell recipes for ﬁ-

nancial success or physical healing. is is where devotion to

Jesus is most tested. is is where the enemy of our souls puts

most of his eﬀorts. One woman who decided to follow Jesus,

along with most of her extended family, could not bring her-

self to give up certain charms, amulets, and occult practices.

She saw these as giving hope for achieving ﬁnancial relief.

One of her uncles made his living as an occult practitioner,

and he seemed to have great sway over the opinions of the

rest of the family. Fatima would plead with this woman. We

all prayed for her. We compiled a list of Scriptures showing

the dire consequences of these practices. To no avail. She fell

away. I feel the grief even as I write this. On the other hand,

those Muslims who follow Jesus and ﬁnd freedom from these

practices experience a tangible and contagious joy and peace.

Not only has it been important to navigate life as Jesus

followers as questions arise among fellow Muslims, they must

also navigate issues that come up with Christians. For exam-

ple, a number of years after we had already moved away from

Fatima’s location, a group of ﬁeld workers decided they would

like to incorporate what God was doing through Fatima and

There is at least one

common practice that Fatima and

friends are fanatical about eradicating:

the practice of looking to spiritual

powers outside of their devotion

to God through Jesus.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

104 The Faith of Fatima: A Case Study of Muslim Followers of Jesus

We count it a great privilege to see God calling people to

follow Jesus while remaining Muslims. And it is also a great

privilege to see God calling national Christians to further

open the way for this possibility in their spheres of inﬂuence.

One Asian church leader in the area where we worked at-

tended a consultation on work among Muslims. During the

consultation, several national Christians from the denomina-

tion he led were describing their work with Muslims—they

were sharing the good news of Jesus, yet deﬁnitively not in-

sisting on a change in religious identity. As is the custom,

after the presentation of these accounts, the denominational

leader was on the program to address the consultation and

end in prayer. As he rose to his feet, a hush came over the

room. He declared,

“As you carry out your ministries, if God wants to send

his Spirit to blow through the mosques of our country

such that many decide to follow Jesus, I say to you all

today,

our denomination will not need to count them.”

It seemed that the Spirit of God blew through that place that

day, and God was pleased that a trusted national Christian leader

would be willing, for the sake of Jesus, to let go of the standard

practice of counting “fruit” and measuring ministry success.

Groups of national Christian leaders in denominations and

other organizations have lent their support for eﬀorts to pro-

duce Scripture translations for various Muslim populations.

ey continue to use their standard church translations, since

they reﬂect the common terminology and phraseology of

their communities. Yet they are welcoming additional trans-

lations that reﬂect the common terminology and phraseology

of other communities who have never had the chance to hear

the Jesus accounts in their own heart dialect.

Some may question the validity of the idea of Muslims

following Jesus from inside Islam, pointing to outsiders as hav-

ing insisted on it. Yet, is it not so, that the idea of having to

leave Islam to follow Jesus has been insisted upon by outsid-

ers as well, and that this endeavor to encourage Muslims to

change religious identity has continued for over a millennium?

Whether the option for Muslims to follow Jesus while retain-

ing the religious identity of their birth is an idea from the out-

side or from inside, there is one thing that is clear: it is not the

friends into their ministry, hoping to help it expand more

quickly. She listened politely, thanked them for their oﬀer,

and explained that what they planned to do would not natu-

rally ﬁt with her people. Over the years she has had to stand

against some well-meaning takeovers. Yet she does not stand

alone, but stands with a group of tested friends who make de-

cisions together after ample discussion and prayer. She sum-

marizes it by saying, “We are not agents of foreigners; God

is sending us to our people to keep explaining what we are

experiencing, until they understand.”

Sometimes a comment arises with others we meet outside

Fatima’s circle:

“If we had known it was possible to follow Jesus and stay

in our religious community, we would have done that

when we discovered Christ, but we didn’t know there was

any other option, so we left Islam and changed our reli-

gious identity.”

I honor any person who has paid the high price of leaving

community, or who has been thrown out of the extended fam-

ily for the sake of Jesus. I believe God is calling many of these

brothers and sisters to be involved in extending the kingdom

from where they now ﬁnd themselves—inside Christianity.

For others, God may call them to return to their religious com-

munity of birth, to one degree or another. One friend of ours

was distinctly led by the Lord to return to his Muslim identity

several years after he had left Islam. He approached each family

member to ask to be received back. He explained that he would

return only under the condition that they would allow him to

continue to follow Jesus. ey heartily agreed, by the grace of

God. He says about his experience, “I have come home.”

Another Muslim friend of ours who follows Jesus described

what it was like when his Christian friend ﬁrst explained the

kingdom of God—forgiveness of sins, freedom from demons,

eternal life, peace, power to do God’s will, the experience of

the nearness of God, comfort in suﬀering. It was like a beau-

tiful garden, and he eagerly made his way to enter. en his

friend described the extra-biblical Christological creeds he

would need to agree to, and it made him feel like the ticket

to get into this beautiful place now had a price of ten million

dollars. As we heard his story, we wondered, is that God’s

requirement? If it is, then yes, we have to pay the price. Yet,

if it is not God’s requirement, should we continue to require

it? Our friend became convinced as he read the Bible that

God does not require him to embrace the interpretations de-

lineated in certain Christian creeds. We greatly respect this

brother’s expression of faith in Jesus. We contemplate the risk

of setting aside the requirement of such creeds. So far, we feel

that the far greater risk is to insist on them, and possibly push

away from Jesus someone who would otherwise embrace him.

If God wants to send his Spirit

to blow through the mosques of this

country such that many decide to

follow Jesus, our denomination will

not need to count them.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Anna Travis 105

magnet that will attract Muslims to Jesus. It is only a way to

remove a barrier, to lift a requirement that may not be required,

to oﬀer a ﬁghting chance to Muslims who are strongly pre-

disposed against leaving their people to join the other group.

However, once this requirement is removed, could it be that

God will use the sacriﬁcial love of Jesus followers, miracles, an-

swered prayer of Jesus followers, the labor by Jesus followers to

produce appropriate Scripture translations, and the magnetic

reality of Jesus himself, to draw as many Muslims as possible

into this new life?

A Biblically Based Grassroots Theology Emerges

As we had the privilege of watching God work in the life of

Fatima and friends, we started jotting down the sayings we

were hearing as followers of Jesus explained their new life . . .

“We have discovered Isa the Messiah, the long-forgotten

savior of Islam.”

“We embrace and read all the holy books of Islam.”

“Jesus, our divine Lord, is above us, below us, behind

us, in front of us, on either side of us. We can feel his

presence.”

“When we die, Jesus picks us up and takes us to the

side of God.”

“We look down and not up.” I didn’t understand this at

ﬁrst. ey explained, “e Lord encourages us to look

down to recognize those who are less fortunate than we

are, and inspires us to help them in some way, instead of

always looking up to those who are more fortunate than

we are, longing to be like them, or to be connected in

some way, so that we could rise up to their level. We look

down, and not up.”

“We pray, and also we put out eﬀort.”

“If we need a way out of a situation, and it seems

impossible, we need to get up in the middle of the night

when everything is quiet to pray. We sense the presence

of Jesus, and somehow, he communicates with us and

shows us a way out.”

“When we decide to follow Jesus, we will read a portion

of the New Testament each evening. All family members

are free to join, but we don’t pressure anyone. Eventually,

Following Jesus while retaining

the religious identity of their birth

is not the magnet that will

attract Muslims to Jesus. It is only

a way to remove a barrier.

when most of the members of the household are joining

us in nightly reading, we can start to talk about our new

life with people outside the family.”

“We look forward to the (Islamic) month of fasting.

Normally, we would fast in order to have our sins for-

given. Now, for us it is a time of solidarity with our com-

munity, and a time to get closer to God.”

“When we eat together, we remember the sacriﬁce of

Jesus for us.”

“Our job is to live out our life with God through Jesus,

explaining our experience, so that our family members

and friends will understand what God has done for them

in Jesus. ey will become understanders.” It was so in-

teresting for us to note that they don’t call each other

“believers,” nor call others “unbelievers.” e label “un-

believer” (or

kaﬁr) is used to describe rebellious people

who do not believe in God. ey see fellow Muslims,

not as unbelievers, but as those who do believe in God,

and who are yet to understand what God has done for

them in Jesus.

And they say, “e New Testament is the mountain

top of all the holy books. e holy books must be read

through the lens of the New Testament.”

In the midst of many examples of Muslims who remain in the

religious community of their birth as they follow Jesus, I oﬀer

this case study for our consideration. My hope is that some of

the details of this narrative will help us better understand how

new ways of following Jesus are being forged by Jesus follow-

ers like Fatima and friends. Diﬀerent from most models of

the past where people have assumed that a religious identity

change is necessary, these Jesus followers are not making this

shift in outward identity. I believe they are endeavoring to

be in the world but not of it,

that is, they are in the world

religion of their birth, but not of it.

ey are going beyond

religion and living in the kingdom of God. IJFM

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

106 The Faith of Fatima: A Case Study of Muslim Followers of Jesus

Endnotes

Due to the sensitive nature of this account, I will not mention locations, dates, or the actual names of anyone in the narrative.

We no longer live in the country where this narrative takes place, but we were able to visit Fatima recently.

Tom and Elizabeth Brewster recommended that cross-cultural Christian workers begin their time on the ﬁeld living in the home of a

local family in order to understand and “bond” with that culture and community. omas and Elizabeth Brewster, “Bonding and the Mis-

sionary Task,”

Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader, eds. Ralph Winter and Steve Hawthorne (Pasadena, CA: William

Carey Library, 1981).

In the unpublished paper “In the Footsteps of Bible Women,” my ﬁeld colleague Elisa Park describes how certain women in India, China,

and Korea in the nineteenth century came to faith as they served as helpers for female ﬁeld workers. ese bold women carried the gospel

through family networks, did grassroots pastoral ministry, and often were used by God to see the ﬁrst waves of the gospel build momen-

tum in new areas. Her paper deals with women in non-Islamic contexts in the past, and how similar dynamics are at work in the lives of

some of the women in the accounts described here.

“In the name of God, the gracious, the merciful. Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds, the most gracious, the most merciful, master of the

Day of Judgment.It is You we worship, and to You we call for help. Guide us to the straight path, the path of those You have blessed, not

of those against whom there is anger, nor of those who are misguided.”

For other accounts of Muslims, like Fatima, who follow Jesus and have seen ecclesia or fellowships develop, see the references below

marked with an asterisk (*).

For other examples of groups of new followers of Jesus developing theologies that are both biblical and culturally relevant to particular

socio-religious communities, see the references below marked with a plus sign (+).

John 17:15–18.

Anna Travis, “In the World but Not of It: Insider Movements and Freedom from the Demonic,” Understanding Insider Movements: Disciples

of Jesus within Diverse Religious Communities,

eds. Harvey Talman and John Travis (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2015), pp. 521.

References

Brewster, omas and Elizabeth Brewster. “Bonding and the Missionary Task.” In Perspectives on the World Christian Movements: A Reader,

dited by Ralph Winter and Steve Hawthorne. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1981.

* Duerksen, Darren. Christ-Followers in Other Religions: e Global Witness of Insider Movements. UK: Regnum Books International, 2022.

(South Asian Case Study and theological reﬂections)

* Dyrness, William. Insider Jesus: eological Reﬂections on New Christian Movements. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2016. (a case

study from the Philippines and theological reﬂections)

+ Koyama, Kosuke. Water Buﬀalo eology. Orbis Books, 1999.

Park, Elisa. “In the Footsteps of Bible Women: A Case Study of Growing Networks of Muslim Women Followers of Jesus in Reaching

Families in Southeast Asia.” Unpublished manuscript, last modiﬁed 2014.

+ Prenger, Jan Hendrik. Muslim Insider Christ Followers: eir eological and Missional Frames. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2017.

* Talman, Harvey and John Travis, eds. Understanding Insider Movements: Disciples of Jesus within Diverse Religious Communities. Pasadena,

CA: William Carey Library, 2015. (multiple case studies and an overview of insider movements from multiple perspectives)

Travis, Anna. “In the World but Not of It: Insider Movements and Freedom from the Demonic” In Understanding Insider Movements:

Disciples of Jesus within Diverse Religious Communities,

edited by Harvey Talman and John Travis, 521ﬀ. Pasadena, CA: William

Carey Library, 2015.

* Woodberry, Dudley. “Contextualization Among Muslims: Reusing Common Pillars.” In e Word Among Us, edited by Dean Gilliland,

282–312. Dallas, TX: Word Publishing, 1989. (a case study from South Asia)

Response to Anna Travis’s “The Faith of Fatima“ 107

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

A Response to Anna Travis

by Darren Duerksen

’m so glad to be able to respond to Anna’s paper and

presentation. She introduces us to Fatima, her journey, and

those that have journeyed with her into faith in Jesus. ere are

numerous things I’d love to comment on, but I’ll focus on three.

First, Anna gives us the gift of an honest story. It gives us a

snapshot of how many people were attracted to what Anna calls

the “magnetic reality of Jesus,” and how their lives were changed

as a result. It takes us into the heart of a Muslim community

and shows us how Jesus entered into and is transforming the

community from within. And, Anna also gifts us by sharing the

challenges that they’ve faced and things she would do diﬀerently.

What stands out to me is the reminder that, though God can and

does work through planned, strategic programs, his most pro-

found work often comes from unexpected places, through imper-

fect persons and communities, and in ways we’re not looking for.

Were we walking with Jesus at the beginning of his ministry, we

may have questioned his choice of rough, imperfect Galilean

men and women to be the ones to help launch a mass movement.

Perhaps some might have said the same about Fatima, a Muslim

woman. Anna reminds us that God’s work sometimes looks a

little unpredictable. Maybe even a little unorthodox.

is leads me to a second reﬂection. If some of us were honest, we

might confess that we’re not always comfortable with disorgani-

zation, unpredictability, or things that seem to us a bit unorthodox.

When Anna tells us that one Christ-following Muslim decided

from his own reading of the Bible that God did not require him to

embrace the interpretations of Christian creeds, it could raise red

ﬂags for many. Don’t the creeds help keep Christ-followers from

error? We get uncomfortable. Anna acknowledges this when she

says that she and others with her are aware of and “contemplate

the risk of setting aside such creeds.” But, she says, there is also a

risk in insisting on them and “possibly pushing away from Jesus

someone who would otherwise embrace him.” I think of the real-

ity that, in the history of the Christian church there have been

religious groups who were Christian in their beginnings, rejected

certain creedal statements, broke away from Christian churches,

and now no longer prioritize Christ and the Bible. In response,

Response

Christians have often watched for anything that could be heresy,

policed it, and even punished it. And while the deviation of some

groups from God’s intent no doubt has hurt the witness of the

gospel, we could argue that Christian eﬀorts to safeguard, and

punish what they saw as heresy has often damaged the witness of

the gospel just as much, if not more.

What Anna models for us here is a posture that I think we in

the West greatly need. at is, we need to stop assuming we’re in

control of the gospel and God’s movements. We need to relin-

quish power, even if it makes us uncomfortable. Even if it means

things look to us a little chaotic. And, yes, even if it means that

someone or a group goes in a way we do not agree with.

As an example of this kind of posture, Anna shares about the

mission leader who, when hearing about what was happening

among Muslims said that if God calls people to Jesus through

the mosques of his country, his denomination would not need to

count them. is is actually quite a profound statement. Counting

can be a way of exerting power. During the nineteenth and twen-

tieth centuries, the British colonial administration conducted

regular censuses. One of their unstated reasons was that knowing

numbers, communities, concentrations of religions and groups,

helped them to more easily control their colony. ey knew that it

was easier to manage and manipulate a colony if they could count

it and quantify it. For a Western or Western-shaped Christian

institution to forego counting new believers signals an important

move—that they will not seek to quantify and manage or control

what is happening. is is perhaps something we as Christians

who are involved in cross-cultural ministry need more of.

Lastly, I’m so glad that Anna emphasizes the importance of

prayer, and the miraculous. Time and again, we are reminded

of the importance of praying for, and with, people, and of

the ways in which God brings miraculous change in peoples’

lives, whether it is an inner healing, a physical healing, or

release from demonic oppression.

Perhaps one question that I would oﬀer the discussion regards

how inreligionization relates to what some call primal or folk

religions. Fatima and her community make a clear distinction

between proper faith and inappropriate, occult-like practices.

is reﬂects the orthodox Muslim view, as Anna points out,

and also seems to resonate with some biblical teachings.

But it seems to me that, in some primal or folk religious contexts,

some of these practices may be more central to their religious

tradition and community. I am not an expert on folk or primal

religions, but I wonder how Christ-followers in those contexts,

who embrace an inreligionization approach, would evaluate

these. Would they agree with calling the practices “occult”? How

would they respond to the idea that these practices and their

traditions facilitate demons, and the demonic? We are mainly

discussing the so-called world religions, but it would be interest-

ing and helpful at some point to engage indigenous and folk

religious traditions as well. Perhaps at the next conference.

IJFM

Anna gives us the gift of an honest

story—a snapshot of how people

were attracted to what she calls the

magnetic reality of Jesus.

New Publications by Our Authors

Christ-Followers in Other Religions: The Global Witness of Insiders

Movements

byDarren T. Duerksen | Regnum Books Int’l, 2022

In recent decades many people have begun following Christ while remaining a part of their

non-Christian religious communities. ese insider Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, Native

American, and other followers of Christ have generated much interest and controversy,

particularly in Western mission agencies and churches. In this book Duerksen analyses

the ways in which God’s Spirit may be creating alternative missiological imaginaries

through these individuals and groups, and how their understandings of and witness

to Christ can challenge, expand, and de-center prevalent Western understandings of

Christian mission and discipleship.

Religious Experience and the Knowledge of God: The Evidential Force of

Divine Encounters

by Harold Netland | Baker Academic, 2022

For many Christians, personal experiences of God provide an important ground or

justication for accepting the truth of the gospel. But we are sometimes mistaken about

our experiences, and followers of other religions also provide impressive testimonies to

support their religious beliefs. is book explores from a philosophical and theological

perspective the viability of divine encounters as support for belief in God, arguing that

some religious experiences can be accepted as genuine experiences of God and can

provide evidence for Christian beliefs.

Humble Condence: A Model for Interfaith Apologetics

by Benno van den Toren and Kang-San Tan | IVP Academic, 2022

Today’s cosmopolitan, multicultural, and multifaith environments call for new

approaches to apologetics. To relate the transcultural gospel to diverse and ever-changing

contexts, we must free Christian apologetics from dominant Western habits of mind ill-

suited to interreligious dialogue. Tan and van den Toren provide a global, intercultural

introduction to Christian apologetics. ey present a model of crosscultural dialogue and

accountable witness and explore how it plays out in the context of Hinduism, Buddhism,

Islam, secularism, the primal religions and in late-modern spiritualities. Building on

recent developments in apologetics and missiology, as well as their experience teaching

internationally, they oer an approach that listens and speaks with both humility and

condence.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 109

Darren Duerksen is Associate Professor

of Intercultural and Religious Studies

at Fresno Paciﬁc University, USA. He

has authored Ecclesial Identities in a

Multi-Faith Context: Jesus Truth-

Gatherings (Yeshu Satsangs) among

Hindus and Sikhs in Northwest In-

dia (2015)

and with William Dyr-

ness has co-authored Seeking Church:

Emerging Witnesses to the Kingdom

(2019). His most recent publication is

Christ-Followers in Other Religions:

e Global Witness of Insider Move-

ments

(2022).

Beyond Contextualization

am grateful to be a part of this seminar on “Beyond Contextualization”

and I appreciate Kan-Sang Tan’s call for us to consider and engage in what

he calls

inreligionization. We are trying out various terms and concepts

and are motivated, I believe, by a shared sense that we need a distinctly new

missiology of religion. is would be a missiology that appreciates concepts and

strategies such as contextualization and inculturation, but also recognizes some

of the limitations of the ways these have been used.

Conversion and Religious Traditions

For my part today I want to bring into the conversation a question about our

understanding of

conversion, or what the New Testament calls epistrepho or

metanoia, and particularly how this relates to what we sometimes call religion or

religious traditions. One of the helpful aspects of the term and concept of inre-

ligionization, in my opinion, is where it seeks to direct our gaze and enquiry.

Contextualization conversations have often focused primarily on the issue of

culture. Religion, when discussed, is rightly seen as deeply interconnected with

culture, but often the problematic aspect of culture that needs to be sifted out,

like chaﬀ from the wheat. How do we do that? It depends in part on how

religion is understood.

Some view religions as sealed systems of belief. And because non-Christian

religions have at their core certain false beliefs, say in the Muslim prophet

Mohammad or Hindu

samsara or Buddhist dependent origination, then each

and every part of that religious system is suspect and guilty by association.

Relatedly, many in this camp associate religion with tightly bounded social

groups. Because of this, when Christians think of repentance or conversion,

we have sometimes taught that the only faithful response to the gospel is to

convert from and exit out of that system and community of belief, and to con-

textualize the more neutral aspects of its culture. Some may seek to nuance

this approach, applying Paul Hiebert’s concept of critical contextualization to

37:2 Summer 2020

What Gets “Converted”?

Reections on Language and Images of Religious

Conversion

by Darren Duerksen

Editor’s Note: is article was originally presented at the 2023 Ralph D. Winter

Lectureship under the theme, “Beyond Contextualization: Crossing Religious and Cul-

tural Boundaries.”

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

110 What Gets “Converted”? Reections on Language and Images of Religious Conversion

is, in turn, would combat bad karma and improve this and

her next life. She also believed that spirits, both good and bad,

could protect and improve her life. For this she could oﬀer

incense at shrines and also request local shamans to access

the spirit realm and make requests of the spirits on her behalf.

In her area she knew about a small Christian church. From

her standpoint, however, this group was socially and cultur-

ally isolated and followed a deity named Jesus. But Pba and

her community gave little consideration to the Jesus deity

since they—as well as the Christians—felt that Jesus was the

Christian deity, responsive only to those who had taken bap-

tism and become Christians.

One day, a Christ-follower who was not a part of that church

befriended Pba and, over time, invited her to meditate and

pray to Jesus. Pba was hesitant, but this particular person was

a Christ-follower who shared that, contrary to what Pba had

heard and assumed, Jesus was not the deity of a particular re-

ligion, nor did Jesus require persons to convert religions. With

her new friend’s guidance, Pba began to pray to Jesus and to

experience changes in her family, business, and personal life.

Pba also began to understand the incredible diﬀerences be-

tween Jesus and what her community knew and taught about

Buddhist deities and powers. e Buddha, she had been

taught, was a source of teaching, but was not God, and not

always able or willing to help people. Jesus, on the other hand,

paid attention to and seemed to really love her and her family.

Whereas she had normally practiced rituals like candle- and

incense-lighting and bowing to the Buddha image to wor-

ship and appease the Buddha, Jesus appreciated and was ﬁne

with these things but did not require them. He would listen to

people’s prayers regardless of what they brought to him. Also,

in the midst of the typical Buddhist petition, she was taught

to promise certain gifts, such as a pig’s head, alcohol, or eggs,

if her prayer was to be answered. But Jesus, she learned, was

not interested in what felt like bribes. In contrast with how she

experienced spiritual faith previously, the nature of a relation-

ship with Jesus was characterized by freedom—freedom from

bribery and manipulation, and freedom from many of the

vices and challenges she had experienced in her family and life.

Religion: A Modern Invention

Pba’s story illustrates a number of things, including the ways

in which a focus on religion, and a conversion of religion can

be problematic, or at least not always a helpful way of thinking

about conversion. Why is this? We know that the word and

concept of “religion” itself, as has long been noted, is notoriously

hard to deﬁne. Religious studies scholars sometimes joke with

each other that theirs is one of the only disciplines where no

one can agree on what exactly it is that they study! Recognizing

this over sixty years ago, Wilfred Cantwell Smith leveled his

religion—where the religious aspects of culture, and parti-

cularly the wrong beliefs and practices, are discerned and

rejected, and the supposedly neutral aspects are retained and

adapted for Christian purposes.

Now no doubt all of this is a bit of a simpliﬁcation, but I

would argue that this is not too far oﬀ the mark from the way

Christian missions have often regarded and treated religion

and religious practices. And though there are some deﬁnite

strengths to the concept of

contextualization, I applaud work

like Tan’s and conversations such as this that direct us to focus

on the ways in which Christ and the gospel might seek to en-

ter

into a religious tradition, and what begins to occur in those

people, communities, and traditions once it does so.

But having said all this, I think the strength of inreligionization

is, ironically enough, what I also have the most concerns about.

at is, though it helpfully directs us to look at how the gospel

interacts with religion, the category of religion itself has some

challenges. And though I’m not sure we’ll totally resolve some of

these, I want to oﬀer some alternative, or at least additional, ways

to think about the religious and how it relates to conversion. I

will ﬁrst discuss some of the well-known limitations of speaking

about

religion and a conversion of religion. I’ll then suggest three

alternative ways to think about the religious—namely, religious

wisdoms, religiosities, and religious narratives and journeys. For

each of these I’ll consider what it might mean for the religious,

and religious person, to be converted or turned towards Christ.

Pba’s Story

But before I continue let me share a story about a Christ

follower who turned or, we may say, “converted” to Christ,

but ultimately decided to remain in her Buddhist commu-

nity and tradition. Pba is a Buddhist Christ-follower from

southeast Asia. Pba was raised Buddhist and, similar to many

in her area, integrated popular animistic beliefs in spirits and

ancestors into her Buddhist ritual beliefs and practices.

She

would regularly visit the temples (or

pagodas), to pray and ask

monks to pray for her, observe popular festivals, and oﬀer in-

cense and prayers at shrines dedicated to certain spirits when

she had a particular need. She believed that good actions (or

dana) such as going to the temple, giving an oﬀering, and

honoring an ancestor provided one with merit (or

punya).

Pba and her community

felt that Jesus was the Christian deity,

responsive only to those who had

taken baptism

and become Christians.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Darren Duerksen 111

well-known criticism against the concept of religion contending

that, while people have probably been religious for time imme-

morial, the systematization of this into what we call religion is a

very modern invention.

In addition, no less modern is the or-

ganization of systems of belief into so-called “world religions.”

Because of this, many agree with proposals such as that of

H. L. Richard that, at the very least, we should talk

not about religions but instead religious

tradi-

tions—

Hinduisms, Islams, and Christiani-

ties—to indicate the plural and contextual-

ly speciﬁc ways these are expressed.

Still,

even the language of religious traditions

can evoke the idea of walled and bound-

ed systems and communities. For Pba’s

context, like many others, this bounded

sense of religions like Christianity added

to a sense that the Christ deity belonged

only to that community and system.

is is not to say that there isn’t some value in

seeking to deﬁne and talk about a thing or phenomenon

called religion or religious traditions, particularly from a theo-

logical perspective. Paul Tillich famously described religion as

“the state of being grasped by an ultimate concern . . . which

itself contains the answers to the question of the meaning of

our life.”

More recently William Dyrness incorporates some

insights from religious studies and suggests that religion “rep-

resents the practices associated with the human search for

God,” and the “culturally embedded responses to the presence

of God.”

ese scholars also recognize that religious tradi-

tions, like all parts of creation, are broken by sin. at is, reli-

gious traditions are always and everywhere distorted by sin and

peoples’ temptation to rely on their own selves and self-interest.

And yet, this distortion does not disqualify religion from God’s

overall project of renewal. In fact, they would say that, as partial

and broken parts of creation, God wants to take up religious

expressions and traditions into his renewing work in creation,

particularly through and under submission to Christ.

But here, as Cantwell Smith and others have warned, we

need to be careful of our language. For, as mentioned above,

to talk about religion or religious traditions can imply tightly

bounded systems and communities. Such language may help

us teach or talk about religious traditions—for instance, hav-

ing a class on “Islam,” “Buddhism,” etc.—but the lived reality

rarely corresponds to our descriptions. Religious traditions

are just too messy to work that way.

Because of this, we can do with some more careful thinking

about how to describe the religious. In addition, we perhaps

need to rethink the ways in which conversion relates to the re-

ligious. We don’t want to fall into the trap of making religious

conversion—along with the salvation that we then enjoy—a

purely personal, internal condition removed from the cultural,

religious, and social aspects of life. Rather, and as many have

discussed in recent years, a turn to Christ and an experience of

Christ’s salvation are both personal and social. at is, it is not

only our souls, or our personal lives, that get converted or

turned towards Christ. Rather, conversion also in-

volves a turning and reshaping of our social con-

texts, practices, beliefs, and systems in ways

that reﬂect God’s goodness and shalom.

New Ways of Looking at

Religious Conversion

So, what might be some alternative or

additional terms to religion and religious

traditions, and how might we think in new

ways about religious conversion? Let us con-

sider three: a focus on religious wisdoms, on

religious expression or religiosities, and on reli-

gious narrative and journey.

Religious Wisdoms

e ﬁrst might be to think about religious wisdoms. What is

wisdom, and religious wisdom from a biblical-theological per-

spective, and how might it be helpful? William Dyrness, in his

recent book e Facts on the Ground: A Wisdom eology of Cul-

ture,

explains that wisdom is not simply or only a genre —like

wisdom literature, or moral precepts—like proverbs. Rather, in

the biblical scriptures, wisdom is peoples’ response to God’s good-

ness. It begins when people observe and take delight in God’s

good creation.

From Genesis 1 and 2 we are told that humanity,

made in the image of God, has been created with the capacity to

perceive and delight in the goodness and amazing order of God’s

creation. But not only that: we can reﬂect upon, cultivate, and

develop God’s creation in ways that helps us live wisely in it. In

other words, we as humans have the capacity to not only see and

delight in God’s order and work, but reﬂect upon and develop

that creation, and then to pass along this reﬂection and work to

others. Over time this wisdom accumulates into what we can

call cultural wisdom. is is an accumulation of ideas, practices,

hopes, and aspirations that, again, have their origins in perceiving

and delighting in aspects of God’s good creation.

Wisdom can be developed around any and all aspects of God’s

creation, from scientiﬁc delight and exploration of DNA, to

the creation of poetry about life, to the struggle for just laws

or social structures. But is there something of all this we could

call religious wisdom? Here we can recall previous theological

ideas about religion as practices through which people search

after and relate to God, or to divine beings or powers. In light

of this we can perhaps think of religious wisdom as the ac-

cumulation of reﬂections, responses to, and searches for God’s

presence in our context and in creation.

Wisdom is not

simply or only a genre,

but peoples’ response

to God's goodness.

(William Dyrness)

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

112 What Gets “Converted”? Reections on Language and Images of Religious Conversion

But there are two points that we must make. First, and as

Genesis 3 shows, humanity not only has the capacity to per-

ceive and multiply the good wisdom of creation, but also to

reproduce and multiply evil. at is, while religious

wisdom should ultimately move us in the direc-

tion of God’s overall design for ﬂourishing

and re-creation, persons under the inﬂu-

ence of sin can and do create ideas, prac-

tices, and ways of being that can alienate

and lead ultimately towards death and

destruction. Our cultural and religious

wisdoms, including even the theologies

developed by Christians, will always be

diluted or contaminated by our sinful

proclivities.

e second point we must make is that God’s

wisdom of re-creation is ultimately expressed in and

through the life, cross, and resurrection of Christ. As Paul

shows in 1 Corinthians, lest we as people become too enamored

with our own ideas and formulations, these completely pale and

appear as absolute foolishness in light of God’s wisdom through

Christ. ough people can and do see what theologians have of-

ten called general revelation and reﬂect on this, Christ oﬀers to

us the ultimate and most complete expression of the wisdom of

God, and it is only through the grace of Christ that people come

into God’s salvation.

Less Bounded

How might religious wisdom be treated by Christ-followers in

light of their conversion and turn to Christ? For one, I think a

focus on religious wisdom can help us avoid some of the bounded

ways we think about religion that I previously discussed, includ-

ing what it means to convert religions or religious traditions.

Rather than exiting or fully rejecting the religious, the Christ-

follower views their community’s religious wisdom through the

lens and wisdom of Christ. How, they may ask, might these

wisdoms reﬂect and advance God’s good intent for his creation

through Christ? No doubt some things called wisdom will now be

seen as deviations from God’s intent and plan. But though there is

perhaps much that needs to be reinterpreted or even rejected, no-

tice that the Christ-follower’s default is shaped by the belief that

their community’s accumulated cultural and religious wisdoms

have as their origins, and even continue to in part contain, reﬂec-

tions on God’s goodness and creation. In other words, perhaps

followers of Christ are called to re-understand and re-shape their

community’s religious wisdoms and practices in light of Christ.

Relational Nature

A second and related way in which religious wisdom may be

treated in light of a turn to Christ relates to the relational nature of

biblical wisdom. e nature of wisdom, particularly as described

in the Old Testament, is that it should help us relate well to

God, his creation, and each other. In other words, true wisdom,

including true religious wisdom, is not abstract. It is expressed

in and through relationships that reﬂect God’s purposes

for his creation. Here again, the ultimate expression

and event of wisdom is Christ, through whom

people can enter into a healed relationship

with God, and who through the Spirit gives

the power for a new way of relating to

others. In light of this, a person’s turn to

Christ—their conversion—reorients the

way they relate to God and others. And

through this lens, they can again survey

the religious wisdoms of their history and

community, aﬃrming those aspects of the

traditions that move them towards good rela-

tionships, while rejecting those beliefs and prac-

tices that do not aﬃrm good relationships or the gospel.

A focus on religious wisdom suggests that, in Christ, we are

converted

towards a new way of viewing religious wisdom, of

delighting in God’s creation and multiplying its goodness. Recall

how Pba found both continuity and discontinuity between the

wisdom of God in Christ and her folk Buddhist wisdoms. In

some things she found resonance and value—ways of appreciat-

ing and relating to Jesus as Lord, for example, but also things

that Jesus challenged—for instance, the

reason for these prac-

tices. It still felt the wise and appropriate thing to bring incense

to Christ, but not because Christ needed appeasement. Rather,

such practices expressed and enhanced her relationship to Jesus.

As well, as Pba grew in her understanding and practices of

following Jesus, she developed new, wise ways to live and to

help others live in light of Christ. For example, as a member

of the village leadership council she started leading a com-

munity health committee and people came to her for advice

regarding health issues and other related matters. She also

began a group she called “e Savior Club” to help with com-

munity and temple events and have discussions about God.

Pba chose not to use the name “Jesus” in the club’s meetings

so as not to imply that the group was “Christian.” However,

as more people became involved with the group, she engaged

them individually in book studies and invited them to start

praying to Jesus, just as she had done at the beginning of her

journey. In so doing many people have become interested in

learning more about Jesus and coming into his wisdom.

Religious Expression or Religiosity

A second alternative to a conversion of religion or religious

traditions is to focus on religious expression, or what I’ll call

religiosity. ough on a popular level religiosity can imply an

excessive or slavish devotion to a religion, I use it here simply

The Christ-

follower views his

community’s religious

wisdom through the

lens and wisdom

of Christ.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Darren Duerksen 113

to refer to what religious studies scholar Martin Riesebrodt

has described as a person’s or group’s “subjective appropriation

and interpretation” of a religious tradition at any given time.

For example, how often are the ways in which a person, family,

or group venerates a deity, oﬀers

salat (Muslim prayer), venerates

spirits, or meditates actually an expression of their religiosity?

A person’s or group’s religiosity, we could say, is the mix of be-

liefs, practices, symbols, etc., that they subjectively select and ac-

tivate, often to pursue certain goods, gain protections, or avoid

bad things, for immediate and/or longer term well-being. Be-

cause people to varying degrees select and mix their practices,

peoples’ religiosity is, by nature, a hybrid of inﬂuences.

Hybrid Religiosities

e idea of hybridity has recently been applied to missiology

in a study by William Burrows and Daniel Shaw. e organic

and horticultural analogy of hybridity refers to the process of

crossing genetically diverse plants to create a new plant, or a

“hybrid.”

is term is also used in social science to refer to

the dialectic nature of culture and cultural norms and to chal-

lenge the tendency—particularly on a popular level—to essen-

tialize cultural and religious traditions. Hybridity, and hybrid

religiosities, are emergent phenomena that occur as people

connect with and appropriate the cultural and religious prac-

tices of the past (which are themselves hybrid) within their

current context.

For Christ-followers, this includes the way

their understanding of the gospel interacts with their context.

What might a turning or conversion to Christ entail when con-

sidering religiosities, and particularly hybrid religiosities? First, a

focus on religiosity can helpfully de-center the question of what

religion is and focus us instead on the ways in which people appro-

priate and

do things with the religious. A focus on religiosity, like

that of religious wisdom, directs our focus on the ability and agen-

cy of people to shape their practices and behaviors, within certain

limits. People’s behaviors, in other words, are inﬂuenced but not

determined by their religious contexts. Christ, by his Spirit, em-

powers people to creatively adjust their expressions in new ways.

Reverse Hermeneutics

Second, and relatedly, a focus on converted religiosities may

point to the

processes whereby people make sense of the gos-

pel through their own practices and symbols. Christ-followers

develop their responses to God, their religiosities, through

what William Dyrness and I have described as a “reverse

hermeneutic.” at is, persons interpret and express the gospel

always and everywhere through the lenses of the cultural con-

text.

ese are not just abstract understandings of the gospel

but lived out interpretations expressed through their practices.

Religious Narrative and Journey

I have thus far talked about two alternatives to a conversion of

religion or religious traditions: religious wisdoms and religious

expressions or religiosities. A third alternative is what I’ll call

religious narrative and journey. I use the word narrative, or we

could say

story, to refer to the larger stories of a person’s or a

peoples’ religious journey, and the way they locate themselves in

it. Our religious narratives give us a sense of identity and help

root and shape our religious wisdom and practices. Social scien-

tist Erin Dufault-Hunter says that religious narratives “provide

a superstructure” and an overall “plot, descriptions of characters,

and general guidelines for how to enact it.” In addition, religious

narratives provide us with the stories of mentors who inspire us

and give us examples to emulate. ey also encompass a pool of

rituals through which we become participants in a larger com-

munity which regularly reaﬃrms our religious identity.

Our overarching, meta stories root us in a wider story and

journey as a people. From a Christian perspective think of the

meta story of creation-fall-redemption-new creation that en-

capsulates the story of biblical scripture and our part in that

story as God’s people. Or we could think of the stories of Mo-

hammad and his followers among Muslims or the tales of the

Buddha and

bodhisattvas in some Buddhist communities. But

though these religious stories have structure, they are also al-

ways interpreted, adapted, and even modiﬁed, personally and

corporately. is is particularly the case when people relate these

narratives to their own cultural context and their own stories.

For our purposes, there is no doubt that biblical scripture

provides the compelling and truthful narrative of God’s inten-

tion and work in his creation. is is, we could say, a master nar-

rative that organizes, and re-organizes other religious narratives,

practices, and wisdom. Often, we see the story of God’s people,

ourselves included, as a people on a journey with God. Similarly,

some writers of the New Testament liken the story of God’s peo-

ple to a journey. is is, for example, a characteristic of the writer

of Luke/Acts. In Luke 3, John the Baptist calls the Jewish people

to repentance (metanoia) and uses Old Testament imagery of

“the way” or “road” of the Lord. God’s purposes and his journey

with his people, John is saying, can be likened to a road or path-

way, and God’s people need to repent and turn to stay true to it.

Luke later evokes similar imagery, calling God’s renewal move-

ment “the way” (Luke 20:21, Acts 9:2, 19:9), identifying the gos-

pel as a “way of salvation” (Acts 16:17), and “the way of the Lord”

(18:25, 26). e picture throughout is one of God, through Jesus,

Our religious narratives give us

a sense of identity and

help root and shape our religious

wisdom and practices.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

114 What Gets “Converted”? Reections on Language and Images of Religious Conversion

the culmination of God’s kingdom and re-creation. As such

they see how God, through Christ, wants to redirect the com-

munity’s religious pathway and story.

For example, some Muslim Christ-followers—those who

follow Christ but choose to stay on and re-orient their Muslim

journey—largely retain the Muslim vision of an afterlife

(jun-

nah)

created by God for those who follow him and his ways.

However, they learn to regard Christ as the pathway, the means

and criteria, by which God will allow them to enter junnah.

Some Suﬁ Muslim Christ-followers in south Asia, for example,

see Jesus as the one who “takes his own” to heaven. In this, they

draw on the teachings of some Suﬁ groups that on the day of

judgement, Muhammad and perhaps some Suﬁ masters will act

as a mediator. But from their readings of biblical scripture, they

realize that it is Jesus who will intercede and secure a place for

his followers on the day of judgement, and not Muhammad or

a master. Because they have a new and elevated vision of the

person of Jesus, they re-vision both their own and their com-

munity’s future. A focus on a conversion of religious narrative

and journey thus allows them to consider the ways in which God

may seek to enter and transform their own religious community

and the ways they understand and re-story their community’s

religious history and trajectory in light of the gospel.

Are Border-Walkers the New Prophets?

As I conclude, I have been suggesting that it can be helpful to

view the biblical idea of metanoia (conversion or repentance)

in relation to the religious, but particularly if it is understood

via diﬀerent language. Rather than only thinking of conversion

from a religion, I suggest that a turn to Christ may call persons

to discern and view in a new way their community’s wisdoms,

religiosities, and narrative journeys. ose who sense Christ

calling them to do so could operate as what Makoto Fujimura

calls “border-walkers”—that is, those Christ-followers in God’s

kingdom whose transformed religious wisdoms, expressions, and

narratives cause them to walk the borders between religious and

cultural communities. Rather than converting out of a religion,

these converted border-walkers become God’s agents for staying

in and re-shaping their religious pathway. And as they do so,

perhaps they provide new, prophetic ways for others of us to see

the ways God is at work in and through his creation.

calling his people to join him on a journey towards his ultimate

re-creation, and one that, in the meantime, would profoundly

reshape them and the way they lived in the world.

Reshaping One’s Existing Narrative and Pathway

What might a turn or conversion to Christ mean for one’s religious

narrative and journey? First, perhaps a turn to Christ might be

seen as a reshaping of a person’s and community’s

existing religious

narrative and pathway. That is, perhaps God is calling people to

remain on, but also reconstruct, their existing religious pathway.

This is certainly the case in the transformation story of Saul/Paul

in Acts 9. After his blinding experience, Saul receives the ability

to physically see along with the ability to perceive more deeply the

work of God for him and all people. But notice that Saul is

not

called away from his religious tradition. Instead, he is called to re-

understand what had previously been shrouded to him—God

was indeed present and working in and through the Jewish

people, but through Christ, the history and trajectory of this work

now took on new meaning and expression.

It is true, of course, that God revealed himself to, and interacted

with, the Jewish community in a unique way. And yet it is not

only Jews who are encouraged to follow Jesus via the religious

pathway of their heritage. In speaking to Gentiles in Acts 14

and 17, for example, Paul draws on starting points common

to both his and their traditions—God as creator of “the world

and everything in it” (17:24), including all persons and nations

(14:15–16). In addition, in Athens Paul references a local shrine

to “the unknown god” and quotes the wisdom of poets familiar

to his audience. Paul is decidedly

not telling them that he is

bringing a new story.

God’s path is not one that simply paral-

lels or has nothing to do with their tradition’s stories. Rather,

as Mary E. Hinkle says regarding Acts 14, “Paul and Barnabas

argue that their ( Jewish) story is the Lycaonians’ story too, even

if it sounds at ﬁrst like new information to them.”

In other

words, to have faith in Jesus does not require people to follow

a new path or tradition, but to see that God is and has already

been

on their path, albeit in ways they had not previously seen.

As they reassess and reinterpret their religious narrative, the dis-

ciples of Jesus will see the ways those paths were in some ways

“crooked” and in need of God’s redirection, but also how God’s

Spirit was perhaps moving in and seeking to bring direction to

the tradition and community all along. In a sense these Christ

followers begin to

re-story their community’s past and tradition

via their experiences and insights regarding Jesus.

Reorienting in a New Eschatological Direction

Second, the conversion of a religious narrative journey would

mean that it gets reoriented towards God’s eschatological

purpose. Christ-followers are called to not only reshape their

existing pathways and to re-story the narratives and tradi-

tions of the past, but to also move in a new direction, towards

A turn to Christ may call people

to discern and view

their community’s wisdoms,

religiosities, and narrative journeys

in a new way.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Darren Duerksen 115

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

Endnotes

is testimony is based on the interviews in Marie Bauer, “What Happens when Buddhists Follow Jesus? A Peek into the Transformed

Lives of Southeast Asian Women,” Resonance: A eological Journal 4, no. 1 (2018).

Wilfred Cantwell Smith, e Meaning and End of Religion: A New Approach to the Religious Traditions of Mankind (New York: Macmillan, 1963).

H. L. Richard, “Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: e Inadequacy of the ‘World Religions’ Paradigm in Cross-Cultural

Encounter,” International Journal of Frontier Missiology 31:4 Winter (2014): 211. For this reason I will most often reference religious

traditions

rather than religions per se.

Paul Tillich, e Future of Religions (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), 3. In a similar way William Dyrness calls religion an “inbuilt

longing for God—the spaces humans construct to look for and even ﬁnd God.” William A. Dyrness, Insider Jesus: eological Reﬂections

on New Christian Movements

(Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2016), 101.

William A. Dyrness, Insider Jesus: eological Reﬂections on New Christian Movements (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2016), 101, 07.

Dyrness, Insider Jesus, 51.

William A. Dyrness, e Facts on the Ground: A Wisdom eology of Culture (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2022), 31.

Riesebrodt, e Promise of Salvation, 76. Riesebrodt and Smith prefer the term religiousness.

See also Christian Smith, Religion: What it is, How it Works, and Why it Matters (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019), 47.

William R. Burrows, “eological Ideals, Cross-Cultural Realities: Syncretism and Hybridity in Christian Culture Crossing,” in Traditional

Ritual as Christian Worship: Dangerous Syncretism or Necessary Hybridity?,

eds. R. Daniel Shaw and William R. Burrows (Maryknoll: Orbis

Books, 2018), 27.

Joel Kuortti and Jopi Nyman, “Introduction: Hybridity Today,” in Reconstructing Hybridity : Post-Colonial Studies in Transition, eds. Joel

Kuortti and Jopi Nyman (New York: Rodopi, 2007), 3.

See Darren T. Duerksen and William A. Dyrness, Seeking Church: Emerging Witnesses to the Kingdom (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Aca-

demic, 2019), 28–29, 71–73.

Dufault-Hunter, Erin Elizabeth, e Transformative Power of Faith: A Narrative Approach to Conversion (New York: Lexington Books,

2012), 78.

Joel B. Green, Conversion in Luke-Acts: Divine Action, Human Cognition, and the People of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2015).

Mary E. Hinkle, “Preaching for Mission: Ancient Speeches and Postmodern Sermons,” in Mission in Acts: Ancient Narratives in Contempo-

rary Context,

eds. Robert L. Gallagher and Paul Hertig, American Society of Missiology Series (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 99.

Hinkle, “Preaching for Mission,” 96.

Perhaps these religious border-walkers are the new prophets

within their contexts. And perhaps we are not only learning

what this looks like in their contexts, but in our traditions as

well. I hope we can continue to listen and consider what they

can teach us about conversion, this metanoia, and how it can

reshape people’s lives and the religious aspects of their com-

munity’s traditions. IJFM

References

Bauer, Marie. “What Happens When Buddhists Follow Jesus? A Peek into the Transformed Lives of Southeast Asian Women.” Resonance:

A eological Journal

4, no. 1 (2018): 86–93.

Burrows, William R. “eological Ideals, Cross-Cultural Realities: Syncretism and Hybridity in Christian Culture Crossing.” In Traditional

Ritual as Christian Worship: Dangerous Syncretism or Necessary Hybridity?,

edited by R. Daniel Shaw and William R. Burrows, xxiv,

278 pages. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2018.

Duerksen, Darren T, and William A. Dyrness. Seeking Church: Emerging Witnesses to the Kingdom. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2019.

Dyrness, William A. e Facts on the Ground: A Wisdom eology of Culture. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2022.

Dyrness, William A. Insider Jesus: eological Reﬂections on New Christian Movements. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2016.

Green, Joel B. Conversion in Luke-Acts: Divine Action, Human Cognition, and the People of God. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2015.

Hinkle, Mary E. “Preaching for Mission: Ancient Speeches and Postmodern Sermons.” In Mission in Acts: Ancient Narratives in Contempo-

rary Context,

edited by Robert L. Gallagher and Paul Hertig. American Society of Missiology Series, 87–102. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis

Books, 2004.

Kuortti, Joel, and Jopi Nyman. “Introduction: Hybridity Today.” In Reconstructing Hybridity : Post-Colonial Studies in Transition, edited by

Joel Kuortti and Jopi Nyman. New York: Rodopi, 2007.

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

116 Response to Darren Duerksen‘s “What Gets ‘Converted‘?“

Response

To my friend, this is the pure expression of Islam. Yet, in other

Muslim contexts, the expressions could vary widely. Pre-

Islamic traditions are woven into the lives of many Muslims

resulting in a hybridity which is not acknowledged by them

for the most part.

I am familiar with only a small part of our own hybridity

of religious expression—as twenty-ﬁrst century Evangelicals.

As of late, I’ve been reading the

Cultural Backgrounds Study

Bible

with my regular Bible reading (Zondervan). is

hybridity Dr. Duerksen talks about is well documented in this

commentary.

Dr. Duerksen says, “Perhaps God is calling people to remain on

and also reconstruct their existing religious pathway.” What a

fascinating alternative to leaving their religious pathway alto-

gether and joining a diﬀerent and unfamiliar one. ey could

continue on their religious path, even as they re-frame it.

We could assume that the religious narrative has already been

ﬁxed—that adherents of a world religion would not have the

possibility or permission to form a new and creative articula-

tion. We could think that there are already religious schools

of thought, already set interpretations. I resonate with Dr.

Duerksen’s hope for creative re-framing. We’ve seen this hap-

pening in person with Fatima and friends, as well as with

other groups of Jesus followers. ey are not ﬁrst asking per-

mission of the “higher-ups”—their re-framing of their narra-

tives is growing out of their own experiences as groups. May

it continue. May God protect these re-framing processes.

May there be a growing variety of new expressions in follow-

ing Jesus within existing religious communities, until we ﬁnd

that God is working in a way that is beyond what we could

imagine. As Dr. Duerksen says, “God is and has already been

on their path, albeit in ways they had not yet seen.” IJFM

Response to Dr. Darren Duerksen

by Anna Travis

greatly appreciate Dr. Duerksen’s exploration of how

Jesus followers could navigate new life within their

birth religious identity—their interpretation of their group’s

wisdom, practice and story of their journey.

I also resonate with Dr. Duerksen’s deeper look at the biblical

implications of “conversion.” is will help us set aside the

typical, often unhelpful assumptions about what “conversion”

should look like. We will be able to look at the context of the

passages where we ﬁnd words that we typically translate as

“convert.”

Dr. Duerksen asks, what is changing (what is getting

“converted”) when a person in a particular religious tradition

comes to faith in Christ? How is the experience of the fol-

lower of Christ aﬀected by the fact that there is hybridity in

any given religious expression? Adherents may not recognize

this hybridity, nor the history of how it developed. Adherents

are living out this hybridity yet are viewing it as a pure expres-

sion of their religion.

I was chatting with a Muslim lady who was explaining to me

what happens when people die. She said,

We Muslims drop everything when news comes of a loved

one’s death. We travel quickly to be with the family, since

the body must be buried before the next time the sun goes

down. We Muslims ask forgiveness of the person as we

come close to the body. And we Muslims throw ower petals

on top of the wrapped body as it is placed in the ground and

is then covered with soil. We Muslims don’t put the body in

a box, because that would inhibit what must happen—the

body must return to the ground and become part of the dust

of the ground.

Adherents may not recognize this

hybridity, but they are living it out

and viewing it as a pure

expression of their religion.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 117

Kang-San Tan (MA, Old Testament,

Regent College; DMin, Missiology,

Trinity Evangelical Divinity School;

PhD, eology of Religions, University

of Aberdeen) serves as General Director

of BMS World Mission. He has served

with the WEA Mission Commission

and the Lausanne eology Work-

ing Group. He is the co-author of the

recent book,

Humble Conﬁdence:

A Model for Interfaith Apologetics

(IVP Academic, 2020).

Beyond Contexualisation

arious Christian bodies are beginning to address the issue of

belonging to more than one religious tradition. e World Christian

Council, in their recent publication, “Religious Plurality and

Christian Self Understanding,” reﬂected on the phenomenon of “double

belonging” as a pastoral issue:

Many Christians seek ways to be committed to their own faith and yet to be

open to the others. Some use spiritual disciplines from other religious traditions

to deepen their Christian faith and prayer life. Still others nd in other religious

traditions an additional spiritual home and speak of the possibility of “double

belonging.”

(Italics mine)

I am writing as a Christian theologian who subscribes to the confessions stated

in the Lausanne Covenant 1974 and who has been an active member of the

Lausanne eology Group as well as the World Evangelical Alliance Mission

Commission. e Lausanne Movement’s mandate is, “e Whole Church

bringing the Whole Gospel to the Whole World,” meaning it is the task of the

whole church (clergy and laity) to witness to the whole gospel (word and deed)

to the whole world (to all nations). ey convened the ird Lausanne Congress

on World Evangelization in Cape Town (October 16–25, 2010) which brought

together 4,200 evangelical leaders from 189 countries, and thousands more

participated through online meetings around the world.

In preparation for the Lausanne Congress Cape Town of 2010, the Lausanne

eology Working Group hosted a consultation in Beirut, Lebanon, 14–19

February, 2010. Together with twenty-three key theologians from fourteen

countries, they worked together on four plenary papers and sixteen case studies.

I had the privilege of presenting one of the plenary papers which contributed

toward a new recognition among Evangelical theologians on this phenomenon

of dual religious belonging. e ﬁndings of the Beirut eological Statement

37:2 Summer 2020

Dual Religious Belonging as a Contextualised

Faith?

by Kang-San Tan

Editor’s Note: is article was originally presented at the 2023 Ralph D. Winter

Lectureship under the theme, “Beyond Contextualization: Crossing Religious and Cul-

tural Boundaries.”

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

118 Dual Religious Belonging as a Contextualised Faith?

to which believers can be subverted by unconscious

syncretism and cultural idolatry. ere are some groups

of people in other cultures, previously unconnected with

established Christianity, who are now following Jesus

Christ while living within their original religio-cultural

traditions. As they seek faithfully to follow Jesus, they

meet together with other followers of Jesus in small

groups for fellowship, teaching, worship and prayer

centred around Jesus and the Bible. At the same time,

they live their lives socially and culturally within their

birth communities.is phenomenon of following Jesus

within diverse religio-cultural traditions needs careful

biblical, theological and missiological evaluation. We

are well aware that it is a complex phenomenon draw-

ing conﬂicting evaluative responses, and we do not seek

to take a position on it here. Our point merely is that it

is a challenge that aﬀects not only those who become

followers of Jesus in the context of what are commonly

called “other faiths.” e dangers of syncretism are

worldwide, and so are the complexities of careful, bibli-

cally faithful contextualisation. We commend the work

of other groups who are studying the latter in depth, but

we would urge Lausanne to sponsor a more thorough

biblical theology of religions within cultures and what

following Jesus means in such contexts.

An important assumption of this paper is that the goal of

Christian mission is to participate in the ushering in of God’s

kingdom on earth by inviting people of other faiths to share

in God’s love for the whole of creation. e presence of God’s

kingdom is to be understood in terms of bringing all things

under the kingship of God. With regard to the function of re-

ligions, it would involve the transformation of non-Christian

religious systems with gospel values whenever Jesus is encoun-

tered as Lord. erefore, instead of compromising disciple-

ship, I am arguing for a radical following of Jesus’ model of

ushering in the Kingdom of God, which includes “inreligioni-

sation.” e goal of mission is not just evangelism and church

on “e World of Cultures and Religions” were published in

part, and in paragraph four it presented a new focus on dual

religious belonging:

1. We are committed to bearing witness to Christ in the

whole world, which means among all people on the

planet. e world of humanity exists, by God’s clear

intention, in nations, tribes, and languages—in other

words, in cultures. Human cultures are religious in vary-

ing forms and degrees. e distinction between religion

and culture is far less clear than often portrayed. For all

religions exist within cultures, permeating and shaping

them. For that reason, religions also share in the radical

ambiguity of all human cultures.

2. We recognise that cultures and religions are neither

monolithic nor static. Both change and vary throughout

history and therefore should not be counted as “given”

or absolute. e church also changes, is inﬂuenced by,

and inﬂuences the cultures within which it is birthed

and grown. e process of discernment within the local

church is fundamental if Christians are to understand

the ways (positive and negative) in which the cultures

around them shape their witness and their calling.

3. If religions are fundamentally human cultural

constructions and if cultures are also part of the created

order, then we can be sure that at least three elements

are intertwined within religions as cultural phenom-

ena. First, because all human beings are made in God’s

image and receive God’s general revelation, there will

be some evidence of God’s revelatory work within the

religious elements of any culture. But second, because

all human beings are sinners, such revelation will also be

distorted and darkened by our wilful disobedience, and

that too will take religious forms. And third, because

Satan is also at work in the world, there will be elements

of satanic deception and evil in all culturally embed-

ded religions. In short, religions can include elements

of God’s truth, can be massively sin-laden, and can be

systems of satanic bondage and idolatry.

4. We recognize that all followers of Christ experience

the challenge of dual belonging: we are Christians who

belong to Jesus, and we ﬁnd ourselves within a culture

to which we belong by birth or circumstance (and such

cultural belonging may be static or it can be ﬂuid and

changing through life). e challenge is that while we

cannot escape the fact of such dual belonging, we are

called to single covenantal loyalty to the Lord Jesus

Christ. Western Christians face the dual belonging

challenge of being disciples of Jesus while living within

cultures of consumerism and militarism. ey need to

be aware of the idolatrous and quasi-religious power of

those dominant forces in their culture and the extent

All followers of Christ

experience the challenge of

dual belonging: we are Christians

who belong to Jesus, and we nd

ourselves within a culture to which

we belong by birth.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Kang-San Tan 119

planting, but a worldview transformation of whole cultures and

religious life in such a radical way that Jesus is confessed as

Lord over every aspect of life, including past religious cultures.

Can someone be both Christian

and Buddhist? In the recent

best seller,

Life of Pi, when it is discovered that the main teen-

age character, Piscine Molitor Patel, is a practising Hindu,

Christian, and Muslim, the religious leaders all agree

that “in these troubled times, it [is] good to see

a boy so keen on God. . . . But he can’t be a

Hindu, a Christian

and a Muslim. It’s im-

possible.

He must choose.”

(italics mine)

Can Christians belong to more than one

religious tradition? What are the argu-

ments put forward for dual religious be-

longing and how do Christians develop a

theological assessment of such a dual phe-

nomenon, particularly when it exists among

Christians who hold on to the ﬁnality of Jesus

Christ as their unique saviour for salvation?

What kind of theology of dual belonging can best sustain

the phenomenon of dual religious belonging? What are some

contributions of dual religious belonging theology toward

Evangelical contextual missiology? In addressing these vital

questions I want us to rethink the Christian theological de-

bates surrounding “religions” and “insider movements,” spe-

ciﬁcally for those coming to Christ from other faith traditions.

Christian identity

Before discussing any Christian theology of dual religious

belonging, it will be helpful to deal brieﬂy with the complex

idea of identity.

Webster’s New World Dictionarydeﬁnes iden-

tity, among other things, as “the condition or fact of being a

speciﬁc person or thing; individuality.” Identity can be per-

sonal, group, cultural, national, and also religious. Identity will

be determined not only by an individual perception but also

in relation to and by the perceptions of other groups.

We are now witnessing an emerging social condition of

“hybridity,” whereby one’s identity is now shaped and facilitat-

ed by the mixing and interactions of diverse cultures.

Tradi-

tional and strict boundaries between cultures are increasingly

becoming more diﬃcult to maintain in global cities. Christian

understanding will need fresh theological categories in order

to take into account or reﬂect the reality of active diﬀusions of

beliefs, practices and inﬂuences between religions.

Writers such as Stuart Hall challenge a traditional concept

of identity as a self-contained and ﬁxed concept.

Hall dis-

tinguishes between three diﬀerent conceptions of human

identity: the ﬁrst being the “Enlightenment subject” which

conceived of the human person as “a fully centred, uniﬁed

individual . . . whose ‘centre’ consisted of an inner core . . .

remaining essentially the same . . . throughout the person’s

existence.”

is view saw identity as individualistic, au-

tonomous and ﬁxed. Beginning in the late

nineteenth cen-

tury, with the complexity of the modern world, there was a

growing awareness that the idea of a self-contained,

ﬁxed identity was not adequate. Instead, iden-

tity was formed “in relation to ‘signiﬁcant

others,’ who mediated to the subject, the

values, meanings and symbols—the cul-

ture—of the world he/she inhabited.”

is second concept of identity is called

the “sociological subject” whereby an

individual’s inner core was continually

being formed and modiﬁed in dialec-

tical interaction with his or her society

and culture. Identity in this conception

bridges the gap between the individual and

the society, between the private and the public

selves. Such a dynamic view of identity demands a

rethinking of theological categories when Christian theolo-

gians analyse complex phenomenon such as dual belonging.

By the late twentieth century, a third, postmodern conception

of identity emerged, the “postmodern self.” e fragmenta-

tion of the self-identity occurs when the self is “composed

not of a single, but of several, sometimes contradictory or un-

resolved identities.”

erefore, identities are contested and

negotiated between competing loyalties and circumstances.

Likewise, the modern social landscape is also breaking down,

resulting in “the very process of identiﬁcation, through which

we project ourselves into our cultural identities, has become

more open ended, variable and problematic.”

It is possible

that people will assume diﬀerent identities at diﬀerent times,

identities which are not uniﬁed around a coherent self:

The fully unied, completed, secure and coherent identity is

a fantasy. Instead, as the system of meanings and cultural

representations multiplied, we are confronted by a bewil-

dering, eeting multiplicity of possible identities, anyone of

which we could identify with at least temporarily.

It is part of an assumption of cultural theorists such as Stuart

Hall that the modern, pluralist societies allow (indeed re-

quire) their members to adopt multiple social identities con-

currently. is is seen in the diﬀerent

roles one person may

play as she or he interacts with diﬀerent groups (in the family,

workplace, leisure group etc.).

Manuel Castells writes primarily on

collective rather than

individual identity and observes three kinds of meaning-

making by collective groups in modern societies. Firstly,

legit-

imising identity

is “introduced by the dominant institutions

Can Christians

belong to

more than one

religious tradition?

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

120 Dual Religious Belonging as a Contextualised Faith?

of society to extend and rationalize their domination.” A

second type is where countercultural groups build “trenches

of resistance and survival” as a form of

resistance identity. A

third kind of meaning-making is

project identity, formed

when groups come together to “seek the transformation of

overall social structure” (with feminism as a case in point).

erefore, identity should always be thought of in the plural

and as ﬂuid, especially in the global exchanges of cultures and

religions in both Asia and megacities today. Discussion of

religious identities cannot be separated from power relation-

ships in one’s sociopolitical, regional and global context, be-

cause religion is always being used as a political or economic

tool. It is beyond the scope of this research to engage with

further sociological study of identity, but focuses instead on

the theological nature of religious belonging, as constructed

and debated within the ﬁeld of theology of religions.

Christian identity refers to how Christians have understood

themselves as a group, both historically and within any con-

temporary society. Christian identity is rooted in the person

of Jesus Christ, whom Christians believe is the Son of God.

From that basic orientation or identiﬁcation with Jesus, there

are at least four factors which are crucial to the construction

of a Christian identity:

1. Christian “memory” (interpreted in the Scripture)

2. Traditions, theology and liturgy as mediated through

historical constructions (e.g., an Orthodox faith, or

Anglican denominational identity)

3. Local Christian communities (especially when they

function as hermeneutical communities)

4. Social, political and religious contexts of the Christian.

e ﬁrst two categories played a greater inﬂuence in identity

formation, especially during the ﬁrst two centuries or so. is is

because Christian identity had to survive the initial onslaught

of competing ideologies and emerge as a distinct Christian

community. However, indigenous Christian and contextual

identities (numbers three and four) only emerge and ma-

ture as local Christian communities grow in theological self-

understandings and communal discernment. ese two fac-

tors—local identity formation and an engagement with other

socio-historical realities—will shape a given Christian identity.

Evangelicals and Dual Religious Belonging

Dual religious belonging is a phenomenon of individuals

who identify themselves as followers of more than one reli-

gious tradition. People of faith may ﬁnd themselves in vari-

ous dual or multi-religious conditions due to growing up in

pluralistic societies, to the inter-religious marriages of their

parents, to an exposure to multi-religious traditions through

social networks, or to their conversion to another faith. In

the West, the phenomenon of dual religious belonging oc-

curs because a growing number of Christians are attracted to

Asian religions. While some become Buddhists or Hindus,

others decide to retain their Christian belonging, while at the

same time seeking to incorporate elements of Asian religions

into their life and practices. At some point in their journey of

faith, these individuals may decide to retain both faith tradi-

tions, more or less equally, as part of their religious identity or

religious belonging.

Multi-religious identity is deﬁned as having

one unique

identity

(instead of two religions), but “one that is formed

and developed under the inﬂuence of several religious

traditions.”

Identities cannot be compartmentalised but are

developed based on historical, social and cultural conditions,

including drawing on sources of traditions from various reli-

gions. In contrast to the radical pluralist model, this multi-re-

ligious identity of a double belonger group may not belong to

two or more religious communities simultaneously. However,

these double belongers exhibit openness to the grace of God

in diﬀerent religions, and are interested in incorporating the

teachings of these religions as their own. ey have no prob-

lem maintaining identiﬁcation with diﬀerent faith commu-

nities and worshipping in diﬀerent temples and churches at

the same time. However, we do acknowledge the trend is to-

wards a decline of religious identiﬁcation among people from

younger generations in urban cities. While diﬀerent world

religions might still exert a profound inﬂuence on global so-

cieties,

individuals have freedom to choose not only which

religion but also no religion.

For Christians in Asia,

belonging to two or more religious

communities externally as a conscious choice can be prob-

lematic both theologically and socially. In terms of Cor-

nille’s second criteria of acceptance by a religious community,

double religious belonging (external identiﬁcation) is gener-

ally not acceptable to Christians, Muslims and Hindus in

Asia.

Nevertheless, it does not mean that it is impossible

for a certain form of multi-religious

identity to be nurtured

among Christians. For

dual religious belonging, (in contrast to

Identity should always be thought of

in the plural and as uid,

especially in the global exchanges of

cultures and religions

in both Asia and megacities.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Kang-San Tan 121

double belonging) the emphasis tends to be on dual religious

belonging

within oneself. It is neither a conscious mainte-

nance of two or more religious systems or an external social

identiﬁcation with two or more religious communities at the

same time. If the ﬁrst category of double religious belonging

ﬁnds its source (although not exclusively) in a pluralist theol-

ogy of religion, one suspects that this second type of internal

multi-religious identity draws its theological inspiration from

within an inclusivist framework. While holding on to the

centrality of Jesus, an openness to the revelation and eﬃcacy

of other religious truths allows practitioners of Christianity to

develop a new identity that is not exclusively from the Chris-

tian tradition. Normally, such an inclusivist double belonger

has one dominant religious afliation and a second one

which is secondary to the rst but one in which the person

draws in a continuous manner. The second religion may pro-

vide teachings, beliefs, and/or religious practices/customs.

The degree to which the relationship between the dominant

and the secondary is asymmetrical can vary.

Can Exclusivist Christians Sustain Dual Religious

Belonging as a Contextualised Faith?

Missiologists, such as Ralph Winter, compare insider move-

ments with the transitions in early Gentile mission:

It is just as unreasonable for a Hindu to be dragged

completely out of his culture in the process of becoming a

follower of Christ as it would have been if Paul the Apostle

had insisted that a Greek become a Jew in the process of

following Christ. . . . In the New Testament there was no law

against a Greek becoming a Jew. However, Paul was very

insistent that that kind of a cultural conversion was not nec-

essary in becoming a follower of Christ.

It may be helpful to delineate key diﬀerences between the rad-

ical model of Multiple Religious Belonging from our current

contextualisation model of exclusivist Dual Belonging. First,

rather than a pluralist appreciation of other religions as salviﬁc

structures of salvation, dual belonging stems from a growing

recognition that Muslims and Hindus need not leave behind

their past identities and cultures. Whenever new converts of

Jesus Christ become Christians, they are encouraged to re-

main within their cultural identiﬁcations. Due to the intimate

link between culture and religious identities and a new under-

standing of postmodern identities as not ﬁxed and complete,

followers of Jesus from diﬀerent religious traditions may take

on a dual belonging identity. Second, promoters of insider

movements seek to avoid negative connotations of “Western

Christianity” (i.e., labels such as imperialism, anti-nationalism

and other foreign inﬂuences). For Asian converts to Chris-

tianity, Jesus could be the centre of their faith but they may

not want to be identiﬁed with Western forms of Christian-

ity. ird, unlike the ﬁrst radical proposal of combining two

or more religious systems, many of the proponents of insider

movements include conservative Christian mission groups

who are ﬁrmly in the exclusivist camp, with regards to their

theology of religions. Fourth, while the ﬁrst two models tend

to consist of

individuals without a single identiﬁable commu-

nity, insider movements tend to consist of

mass movements of

Hindus or Muslims toward Christianity.

One ﬁne example of such an interdisciplinary approach to

this phenomenon is found in, “Jesus Imandars and Christ

Bhaktas. A Qualitative and eological Study of Syncretism

and Identity in Global Christianity,” a doctoral study present-

ed at the University of Copenhagen by Jonas Petter Adelin

Jørgensen. Jørgensen studied two groups of insider move-

ments: Muslim background believers

Īsā imandars, meaning

“those faithful to Jesus,” and Hindu background believers

Christ bhaktas, meaning “devotees of Christ.” Both groups

are self-consciously not Christian, although their religious

faith shares a deep family resemblance to the larger Christian

community. e religious life of the imandars and bhaktas are

found to be a mixture between Christian theological ideas

and forms from other religious traditions (Islam and Hindu-

ism respectively). Instead of branding these groups as syncre-

tistic, Jørgensen argues that the practice of the imandars and

bhaktas could be viewed as new and creative manifestations

of Christianity in a global age. e study concluded that theo-

logically, the imandars and bhaktas identiﬁed Jesus Christ as

central and essential although their dual identiﬁcation with

Islam and Hinduism respectively is based on a rather free

interpretation of culture and symbols revolving around this

fundamental relation.

Syncretism and Hybridity

Syncretism is a contested term and could be based on the

assumptions that religions are bounded entities— that every

religious tradition has clearly deﬁned doctrines and practices.

Scholars may often specialize on one religious group, on tex-

tual traditions and maybe elite members who are not seeing

syncretistic elements in their own traditions. Christians may

approach these religious others with a view to determine what

is syncretistic rather than with a readiness to embrace am-

bivalence and dynamic interchanges between faith practices.

Rather than a pluralist appreciation

of other religions as salvic,

dual belonging recognizes that

Muslims and Hindus need not leave

behind their past identities and cultures.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

122 Dual Religious Belonging as a Contextualised Faith?

that Chinese Christians may have to rediscover as part of the

construction of Chinese identity. On the other hand, the high

value attached to individual rights and freedom (which is for-

eign to both the Christian gospel and the Chinese culture)

extolled in the West becomes problematic for constructing a

harmonious Chinese self. Yeo’s intertextual Pauline-Confu-

cian studies, while demonstrating a hybrid identity, become a

quest for an authentic Chinese Christian ideal.

In the ﬁnal analysis, in contrast to a comparative study, Christian

theology will then need to engage more seriously with the total

revelation of God, as revealed in the Bible as well as theologi-

cal perspectives within the Christian community. It also needs

to engage with insights and values from the diﬀerent religious

traditions. For example, what kind of new Christology and new

ecclesiology are developed out of these three models of multi-

religious belonging? Until we have more developed theologies

coming out from these contexts, ongoing dialogue and contin-

ued creative thinking build a missiological appreciation for these

new movements.

ough tentative, a missiological framework could be

suggested. While I recognize the ambiguities alongside the

continuum from Multiple Religious Belonging (external

combination of two religious systems), Double Religious Be-

longing (within oneself) to Dual Religious Belonging with

one’s past religious heritage, the diagram below tries to il-

lustrate both the dangers of syncretism as well as possibilities

for enrichment when dual religious belonging is anticipated.

(See Figure 1.)

So, to the question whether it is theologically possible for a

Christian to follow Christ while retaining some form of iden-

tiﬁcation with one’s previous religion such as Islam, Hindu-

ism, Buddhism or Chinese religions, one must say a tentative

but qualiﬁed “yes.” e answer seems to depend on what kind

of multi-religious belonging is being considered. Certainly, a

positive yes for dual religious belonging, but a tentative yes if

we are referring to an external identiﬁcation of faith and loy-

alty to two religious systems of thought. Evangelicals will need

to reject multiple religious belonging as a liberal modernist

ere are those who view the mixing and borrowing between

religions as having both negative as well as positive eﬀects

on Christianity—negatively, when Christianity is subsumed

under the rubric of another religion, for example in the syn-

cretistic practices of witchcraft or pagan worship; positively,

when the mixing of the two faiths resulted in the transfor-

mation of Christian faith. For example, Christians can learn

from meditation practices arising from the value of silence

in Buddhist meditation. If we redeﬁne our concept of syn-

cretism not based on the mixing of religions but rather on

evaluating its intended meaning using appropriate biblical

criteria, we will have a diﬀerent perspective on syncretism. In

this biblical view, the syncretistic mixing of two religions is

judged negatively only when the mixing of Christianity with

incompatible elements of other religious beliefs or practices

resulted in the gospel of Jesus Christ losing its integrity, such

as pagan worship or the denial of the lordship of Jesus Christ.

Robert Schreiter suggests we view syncretism as the necessary

synthesis of identity formation.

Syncretism is inevitable as

we live in a global ﬂow of constant interactions with diﬀer-

ent cultures and religions. When dual religious belonging is

viewed as a process of identity formation, then we understand

both synthesis and syncretism happening together, as two

sides of the same coin. Syncretism then is not viewed as some-

thing negative but as an inherent process of identity formation

in a dual religious context.

In real life, the process of synthesis and syncretism will take

place as Christians read non-Christian scriptures such as the

Qur’an or Tao Te Ching as part of their intertextual read-

ings of religious scriptures. Increasingly, new and imaginative

Christian identities could be nurtured as Muslim background

believers read the Bible alongside the Qur’an, and as Chinese

Christians reinterpret Confucian texts through Christian

theological lenses. K. K. Yeo, Professor of New Testament at

Garreth-Evangelical Seminary, in Musing with Confucius and

Paul,

demonstrated how an Evangelical Chinese Christian

identity can be constructed without capitulating to dominant

Western Christian values. For example, the Confucian ideal

of ﬁlial piety and honouring ancestors are important aspects

Continuum of Syncretism

Figure 1. Dual Belonging and Syncretism

Higher Degree

Lower Degree

Pluralist Multiple

Belonging

Inclusivist Double

Belonging

Exclusivist Dual

Belonging

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Kang-San Tan 123

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

Endnotes

“Religious Plurality and Christian Self-Understanding,” World Council of Churches, accessed on 12/08/2011, Religious plurality and

Christian self-understanding | World Council of Churches (https://www.oikoumene.org/resources/documents/religious-plurality-and-

christian-self-understanding).

Christopher Wright, Cape Town Commitment 2010, accessed on 12/26/2013, e Cape Town Commitment - Lausanne Movement

(https://lausanne.org/content/ctc/ctcommitment#foreword).

Yann Martel, Life of Pi: A Novel (Singapore: Mariner Books, 2002), 92.

Manfred B. Steger, M. Globalization: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2003), 5.

Steger, Globalization, 7.

Stuart Hall, “Introduction: Who needs Identity?” in Questions of Cultural Identity, eds. Stuart Hall and P. Du Gay (London: Sage, 1996),

1–17. See Timothy Green, “Issues of Identity for Christians of a Muslim background in Pakistan” (PhD diss., London University, 2014).

approach that is untenable with biblical faith. However, Asian

Christians need not reject everything of past religious beliefs,

as long as they are compatible with Christian Scripture. Alan

Race pointed to the teaching of the early Church Father, Jus-

tin Martyr, who clearly taught on the operation of God’s grace

outside Christianity:

It is our belief that those men (sic) who strive to do the

good which is enjoined on us have a share in God; accord-

ing to our traditional belief they will by God’s grace share

his dwelling. And it is our conviction that this holds good in

principle for all men (sic).

Just as Augustine learned from Neoplatonism, omas Aquinas

learned from Aristotle, and John Calvin learned from Renais-

sance humanism, then it can be argued that Asian Evangeli-

cals may be able to learn from the Buddha—and other great

religious thinkers and traditions—perspectives that can help

them more clearly understand God's revelation in Christ.

ese early Church Fathers learned from the knowledge of the

world’s philosophies of their time, and they were transformed

by their learning, but they also challenged those aspects which

were not true or compatible with Christian doctrines and be-

liefs. If the key lesson is about mutual learning between religious

traditions, then we must also raise the question as to why West-

ern Christians may not also learn from the great non-Christian

teachers of the non-Western world.

Asian Christian spirituality can recognize and aﬃrm those

elements that are “good, true, and holy” within one’s past re-

ligious faith, whether it be Buddhism, Hinduism or Islam.

Regardless of one’s answer or inclination, dual belongers will

need to continually reﬂect and exercise discernment, through

the help of Scripture, the Holy Spirit, and the local communi-

ty of dual belongers. In the process of critical reﬂection, there

will be elements within one’s previous religious beliefs and

practices that can be retained and there will be other elements

within one’s past religious beliefs and practices which need to

be rejected. Identiﬁcation with one’s past religion requires the

convert to hold in tension those elements of continuity and

discontinuity. Over time, an intra-religious dialogue between

insider movements and the established church traditions

(past and present) as

equal partners will further shape the de-

velopment of insider movements’ theologies. Meanwhile, we

approach the new phenomenon of dual religious belonging

not as a ﬁnal product or outcome but a dynamic process of

negotiating identities between Christianity and past religious

belongings and a dynamic negotiating between an emerg-

ing indigenous form of Christianity and an apostolic faith

whereby, as highlighted by Kathryn Tanner, the “. . . distinc-

tiveness of a Christian way of life is not so much formed by

the boundary as at it.”

Dual religious belonging allows diﬀerent perspectives to ﬂourish

within one and the same person by encouraging inculturation

and promoting understanding between two religions. In interre-

ligious dialogue, a dual belonger is able to enter into past religious

belief systems and draw insights which may not be available to

an “outside” observer or partner. In a sense, both etic and emic

perspectives may be appropriated. A key notion in anthropo-

logical research is the distinction between the imposed (export-

ed)

etic perspective and the (indigenous) emic perspective. e

emergence of a dual belonging community enables both the im-

ported Christian perspective as well as the indigenous Asian re-

ligious perspective to intersect and interact—in particular, when

the local community of dual belongers, such as that of Muslim

background believers, becomes a hermeneutical community.

One can only pray and hope for the emergence of such indig-

enous Christian communities that will bridge the temple and

the mosque. eir growth presents unprecedented promise for

the development of authentic Asian Christian identity and will

contribute to the reconciliation of religious communities world-

wide. Dual belongers may then contribute to the project of self-

theologising and the development of indigenous Christian

communities. IJFM

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

124 Dual Religious Belonging as a Contextualised Faith?

Stuart Hall, David Held, Don Hubert and Kenneth ompson, Modernity: An Introduction to Modern Society (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell,

1996), 597.

Hall, Held, Hubert, and ompson, Modernity, 597.

Hall, Held, Hubert, and ompson, 598.

Manuel Castells, e Power of Identity (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 7–11.

“Christian Identity in a Pluralistic Context: Continuity and Discontinuity,” accessed June 10, 2013, https://www.tilburguniversity.edu/

research/theology/programs/identity.

Perry Schmidt-Leukel, Transformation by Integration: How Inter-Faith Encounter Changes Christianity, (SCM Press, 2009), 46–48.

Catherine Cornille, Many Mansions?: Multiple religious belonging and Christian identity (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2010).

Gideon Goosen, “Edith Stein: An example of dual religious belonging?”, Australian E-Journal of eology, (2005): 1, accessed July 21,

2023, AEJT (https://acuresearchbank.acu.edu.au/download/eea22be20587543963b940587ddd5a09d68ad1002756166272390174af-

b0e47c/484386/OA_Goosen_2005_Edith_Stein_an_example_of_dual.pdf).

Ralph Winter, “To the new ASM: Greetings from the West,” Asian Missiology, Vol. 2/No.1, (2008): 201, accessed July 21, 2023, To e

New Asian Society of Missiology - Asian Society of Missiology (https://asianmissiology.org/2010/10/15/greetings-from-the-west/).

Jonas Petter Adelin Jørgensen, “Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: A qualitative and theological study of syncretism and identity in

global Christianity” (Doctoral Study presented, University of Copenhagen, 2006), accessed 13 May 2008, http://isis.ku.dk/kurser/blob.

aspx?feltid=160364.

Robert Schreiter, e New Catholicity: eology between the Global and the Local (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1998), 62–83.

K. K. Yeo, Musing with Confucius and Paul (Cascade Books, 2008).

Alan Race, Christian and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian eology of Religion (London: SCM-Canterbury Press, Ltd., 1983), 42.

Race, Christian and Religious Pluralism, 42–44; also on Clement, the early Church Father’s view on the presence of divine truth in Eastern

religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.

Jørgensen, “Jesus Imandars,” 40.

INSIDER CHURCH

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the question, What is church? Starting with the identity-shaping narrative of the people of God, Antonio digs deep into the

nature of biblical ekklēsia from multiple angles—local and universal, visible and invisible, the classical “marks” of the church,

and missional identity. Combining a robust,

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Further Resources on the Hermeneutical Process

Cultural Gaps: Benjamin Robinson’s Experience with Hindu Traditions

edited by H. L. Richard | William Carey Publishing: Littleton, CO, 2020

Dierences between Hindu and Christian traditions account for an uneven reception

of the gospel of Christ among Hindu peoples, and these dierence call for a deeper

understanding of intercultural hermeneutics. In Cultural Gaps, H. L. Richard brings a

forgotten nineteenth-century pioneer back into this conversation by reviving his memoir,

with a new forward, extensive footnotes, and a new introduction. Robinson’s experiences

in south India in the 1880’s remain relevant, particularly his attempts at authentic

interreligious encounter and his struggle to adequately integrate into the Hindu context.

Intercultural Hermeneutics (Vol. 1, Intercultural Theology)

by Henning Wrogemann | IVP Academic, 2016

In Henning Wrogemann’s rst of three volumes on intercultural theology, this leading

missiologist of religion brings together religious studies, missiology, social science

research and Christian theology in a fresh investigation of what it means to understand

another cultural context. As one who represents the emergent German emphasis on

intercultural hermeneutics, the author surveys dierent hermeneutical theories and

concepts of culture as he addresses the dicult questions of syncretism, inculturation

and identity. is is a textbook for understanding the hermeneutics underlying the

development of Christian diversity across time and space.

A Theology of Interreligious Relations (Vol. 3, Intercultural Theology)

by Henning Wrogemann | IVP Academic, 2019

In this third volume of his three-volume Intercultural eology, Henning Wrogemann

proposes that we need to go beyond currently trending theologies of mission to formulate

both a theory of interreligious relations and a related but methodologically independent

theology of interreligious relations. Amidst the ongoing religious pluralization in

societies that were once more religiously homogenous, the author addresses the fallacies

of dierent theology-of-religion models and identies the most pertinent factors at play

when those from dierent cultural and religious traditions come in contact in real-life

situations. Wrogemann provides a masterful scope to the study of interreligious relations.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 127

H. L. Richard is an independent

researcher focused on the Hindu-

Christian encounter. He has published

numerous books and articles includ-

ing studies of key ﬁgures like Narayan

Vaman Tilak (Following Jesus in the

Hindu Context,

Pasadena: William

Carey Library, 1998), Kalagara

Subba Rao (Exploring the Depths

of the Mystery of Christ,

Bangalore:

Centre for Contemporary Christian-

ity, 2005), and R. C. Das (R. C. Das:

Evangelical Prophet for Contextual

Christianity,

Delhi: ISPCK, 1995).

Beyond Contexualization

ajendra Chandra Das (1887–1976) was born in (then) East Bengal in

the village of Shyampur, then some miles away from Dhaka but today

integrated at the edge of the growing metropolis. He was from the

backward Namasudra caste but his father was a somewhat prosperous farmer

and a devout Vaishnava Hindu. As an intelligent boy Das won scholarships

and by age 15 was sent to Dhaka for schooling. ere he came into contact

with Christianity and the Brahmo Samaj.

Both Christianity and the Brahmo

Samaj appealed to him as he was drawn to the way of Christ. Das himself

described his feelings:

I became attached to Brahmoism and to Christianity almost simultaneously

though during the earlier part of my residence in Dacca I was inclined more to

Brahmoism than to Christianity. Had I not kept up this connection with Christian-

ity (for which I thank God) perhaps I could not have become what I am today.

There was sufcient reason for my partiality to Brahmoism at that time.

First of all, it is indigenous in every way, and so naturally appealed to my heart.

Secondly, it possesses a most excellent literature in the vernacular and music

of a high standard which, I believe, is the most effective instrument to attract

men to religion and spirituality and to change men's opinions (their traditional

views). Thirdly, it offers a reconciliation of all the conicting religions of the world

though I discovered the fallacy of its eclecticism before long. Lastly, the Brahmo

community is highly developed in point of education, morals and religion, and is

a pleasant half-way house between Hinduism and Christianity. All these drew my

attention to it.

I hardly found any good Christian literature, and scarcely frequented the Christian

chapel. I remember having gone to the Bengali service once or twice, but it gave

me little satisfaction. The whole thing appeared to be a got up show arranged by

the missionaries. The service was dry and formal; no bhakti (devotional spirit) was

seen among the few people. It was words and words and sound and sound. No

spontaneous spirit of worship that I saw in the Brahma Mandir. Everything, even

the very atmosphere, seemed to me foreign and alien to my taste. (Richard 1995,

27; written in 1911, published in National Council of Churches Review in March,

1949; revised and reprinted as a tract in 1974.)

37:2 Summer 2020

The Life and Thought of R. C. Das:

His Theology of Interreligious (Hindu-Christian) Relations

by H. L. Richard

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

128 The Life and Thought of R. C. Das: His Theology of Interreligious (Hindu-Christian) Relations

acharya of the New Dispensation Church of Keshub Chandra

Sen, Bhai Banga Chandra Roy, editor of East Bengal Times

and member of an aristocratic Hindu family, who was one of

the 40 outstanding converts initiated in one day's meeting

of Keshub Chandra Sen into the Brahmo Samaj. My friend

called out from the ground oor that Rajendra was com-

ing. Immediately the octogenarian saint with a stick in hand

started to come down to welcome me, stepping on a rather

precarious wooden staircase. With some difculty and with

strong but loving words I succeeded in making him wait up-

stairs. I was pleasantly shocked to see his childlike delight

and enthusiasm to run down to meet me at sight. When

I went up slowly and carefully and bowed on his feet he

stretched out his loving hand and shook it strong with mine

and affectionately embraced me saying “From today you are

my brother.” I was like his son, his nephew's age, but I un-

derstood what he meant—brother in Jesus Christ. (Richard

1995, 35; from unpublished “Autobiographical Reections“)

Higher Studies

Das moved to Kolkata around 1910 to pursue a BA in

English, Sanskrit, and philosophy; he graduated with hon-

ours. He spent a year in the newly reconstituted Serampore

eological College, intending to join the Baptist ministry,

but the course work was not satisfying to him. He then spent

three years earning a master’s degree in philosophy in Kol-

kata, and during this time joined the Anglican church. He

had been rejected from a position as an evangelist among the

Baptists but was appointed by the Anglicans. He was married

in 1917 and eventually had seven children.

Patterns and priorities of the ministry of R. C. Das were set

in his early years in Kolkata (rooted in his Dhaka experiences

outlined above). He was initially deeply involved in tradition-

al Christian evangelistic work but moved away from this in

favor of indigenous methods. Das himself wrote,

In spite of heavy work as an advanced student and soon as a

teacher, I used to address large numbers in halls in the open

air, in cities and in villages—sometimes audiences as large

as ve thousands. It was all direct and frank—preaching the

word—and appeal to heart and head to accept the claims of

Christ upon one's life. I soon realised the futility of it all—its

impersonal vagueness, its vanity, its costliness in mental and

physical energy, above all its temptation to name and fame.

I preached in the villages of Dacca, Barisal, Faridpur, Jessore,

Khulna, Nadia, 24 Parganas, and Pabna districts of the then

divided Bengal and always in cooperation with missionaries

and Indian evangelists. I preached with my gospel team in

the halls and squares of Dacca and Calcutta; and was the

leader in arranging huge evangelistic campaigns for John R.

Mott, Sherwood Eddy and others and was the rst and last

editor of Prochar Abhijan—a monthly—promoting evange-

listic campaigns in Calcutta and in the presidency of Bengal.

. . . But soon I was led to a new spirit, a nobler motive, a

congenial and quiet evangelistic approach. What follows

will be a verication of the personal, friendly and indigenous

Embracing Christianity

Yet in the end Das opted for Christianity as more satisfying

than the Brahmo Samaj:

Brahmoism stirred the depths of my soul, created a restless

spirit in me, but gave no adequate consolation and peace.

It told me to repent and turn to God, but I was unable to

work true repentance. I often shed tears but found no peace,

no assurance of God's love and forgiveness. It increased

my restlessness and dryness of heart. I chased the shadowy

ghost of the God of Brahmoism in vain while on the contrary

without my wishing it or being even conscious of it the real-

ity of the presence of God in Christ followed me, upheld me

and even got hold of me. It was, it seemed to me, at least a

feeble realisation in my own very humble and obscure life of

the truth of the cat school of philosophy in Vaisnavism—the

kitten being compulsorily moved and rescued by mother cat.

The Brahmo God though true in theory eluded my grasp, and

I could not worship unless I created a God in my heart. But

I was not to be satised with imagination. I wanted real-

ity which would at once satisfy my conscience and intellect.

Brahmoism hardly told me anything of the stain and impu-

rity which blackened my soul and heart, and dimmed my vi-

sion of God and deled His image in me. Brahmoism scarcely

offered me an adequate means of salvation except a false

repentance which has to be worked out. It told man to go to

God, but did not undertake to remove the barrier between.

Reason and intuition are the ultimate criteria of truth ac-

cording to Brahmoism. Revelation is an absurd impossibil-

ity. Well did my whole nature revolt against such a system

when I arrived at the age of discretion and maturity. (Richard

1995, 32; written in 1911, published in National Council of

Churches Review, March, 1949; revised and reprinted as a

tract in 1974.)

So Das was baptised by Baptist missionaries in 1908 at the

age of twenty-one. I fear the above account will be read too

negatively in regards to the Brahmo Samaj, so this incident

after Das’ baptism provides another perspective:

On the day following the baptism, early in the morning came

Prashanta Kumar Ray—my class friend in the Dacca Gov-

ernment College—calling me to his uncle and my beloved

I chased the shadowy ghost

of the god of Brahmoism in vain

while on the contrary

the reality of the presence of God in

Christ followed me, upheld me,

and even got a hold of me. (R. C. Das)

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

H. L. Richard 129

method in evangelism as spiritually and otherwise valid and

effective. (Richard 1995, 40; from God’s Redemptive Acts

and Creative Dealings through One Who Found Life, Vara-

nasi: R. C. Das, 1962)

As a developing Christian leader Das was encouraged

by his mentors towards joining the Anglican

ministry with the prospect of eventually be-

coming a bishop and bringing a genuinely

Indian ethos into the church. But Das

found it necessary to turn aside from

this proposed path. He wrote,

I have a sense of vocation and a call

from God, a freedom in initiative and

a wider ideal—which I think cannot be

fullled within the purview of the church

which is too tight and strict in law and

order. I shall be swamped in its thick atmo-

sphere and thwarted at every step by the very

tradition of the church—totally alien to India—and

by the very close fellowship of its members in a different

climate. . . . In the Anglican church I, a Hindu convert, as a

priest shall be only one black rung in the entire white wheel

of the church. What can I do for the church and what can the

church do for my life development? (Richard 1995, 39; from

unpublished “Autobiographical Reections“)

Whether Das’ Anglican friends could have steered him

through the church system to rise up as a bishop cannot be

known. What is clear is that there was opposition to his inno-

vative indigenous approaches. Willie (W. E. S.) Holland was

especially a friend and support to Das, and when he relocated

from Kolkata to England for a time, he thought it best that

Das also leave the city. So from 1918 to 1922 Das shifted to

St. John’s College in Agra.

Teaching in Agra

Das taught by a Socratic method rather than by focusing on

rote memory. Since this paper is not solely biographical, I will

only share one incident from the beginning of his Agra years:

While still in Calcutta a friend warned me that a Hindu

convert and nationalist as I was I might have to face some

social problems from the Christian community—unpopu-

larity, exclusion and even persecution, U. P. Christians be-

ing what they were—not only western in their living style

but harbouring anti-Indian and anti-Hindu prejudices and

cherishing extra territorial politics and cultural loyalties and

economic and religious gratitude to the west. I thought it

was horrible. To obviate at least an initial unpleasant situ-

ation, the friend suggested that I should adopt European

dress. In spite of my reluctance, as a tactical gesture, I wisely

accepted the advice. Why should I under the actual circum-

stances allow an external thing like dress to be the cause of

misunderstanding when Christians should have, and have,

internal spiritual unity? (Das 1976, 129)

roughout his life R. C. Das did not shy away from controversy

when he felt important principles related to God’s kingdom

were at stake. But as this incident shows, he was willing to com-

promise on matters of less signiﬁcance. In 1922 Das received

a call back to Bengal, where he initially served under

the Anglican Church Missionary Society for two

years, then under the indigenous leadership of

Allauddin Khan in the Church of God until

1930. e latter had rather extreme views,

opposing both doctors and the wearing

of gold ornaments by women, yet Das

worked happily in this fellowship until an

irresistible call came from Varanasi.

Varanasi

From 1930 until his death in 1976 R. C. Das

was in Varanasi. He was called to serve in the

Benares United City Mission (BUCM) which had

been formed a few years earlier by a number of cooperat-

ing Protestant mission societies, such as the Church Missionary

Society (CMS), the London Missionary Society (LMS), and the

Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (WMMS), etc. e

founder who recruited Das was J. C. Jackson, a British mission-

ary who had ﬁrst entered India under the Salvation Army but

later joined the WMMS. He had married a Tamil lady and saw

his role in Banaras primarily as a caretaker, looking for someone

to truly lead the work. at person was R. C. Das.

While serving in Banaras under the BUCM, Das was the

prime force in founding the Christian Society for the Study of

Hinduism (CSSH). He was a major inﬂuence on the CSSH’s

journal,

e Pilgrim, which ran from 1941 to 1955. In 1947

after the close of the BUCM, Das started his own journal,

e

Seeker,

which in 1958 became e Seeker and Pilgrim. In 1964

Das changed the name of his journal again and called the new

publication

e Church of Christ, which he edited right up to

1973 when he was eighty-six years old. Das was a signiﬁcant

player in many national mission and church consultations in

the middle of the twentieth century, including the Indian

eological Conferences and numerous National Council of

Churches (NCC) consultations. He sought to establish a per-

manent school for Christian study of Hinduism and sought

NCC backing for this, but it never came to fruition.

In Varanasi, Das often worked from a Christian ashram which

he founded, the Kristapanthi Ashram located in Dasash-

vamedh not far from the main bathing

ghat in the holy city.

When the CSSH and BUCM folded, Das lived at the Dasash-

vamedh Ashram and he eventually died there. Das did not

have a particularly happy family life. His wife left in 1949 to

return to East Bengal related to fears of losing family property

due to Partition. But there were also deeper marital problems.

I was led to a

new spirit, a nobler

motive, . . . a personal,

friendly, and indigenous

method in evangelism.

(R. C. Das)

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

130 The Life and Thought of R. C. Das: His Theology of Interreligious (Hindu-Christian) Relations

Relational Tensions

In his writings, Das was often rather severely critical of the Indian

church and missions, as will be discussed below. is contributed

to his reputation as a diﬃcult person to get along with. e closure

of the Benares United City Mission was closely tied to relational

tensions that included Das.

On this complex topic I cannot do

better than quote what I wrote over twenty-ﬁve years ago:

Das remained a bit of an enigma to many who knew

him personally. His family life was not particu-

larly happy and the lack of a close friend and

co-worker, which he himself lamented, no

doubt contributed to his general failing

in relationships with other Christians. Yet

many comment on how warm he could

be personally even when seeming harsh

in his printed diatribes. Das seemed sim-

ply not to understand why friends would

be troubled by his public criticisms which

he considered were made in the cause of

Christ and truth. (Richard 1995, 4)

Writings and Insights

Das was a critical and creative thinker, but his writings

are not easily available. He did not produce any major book,

his most noted publications being the booklet

How to Present

Christ to a Hindu

(North Indian Tract and Book Society, 1951

with some reprintings), and a collection of four shorter papers

entitled

Convictions of an Indian Disciple (Christian Institute

for the Study of Religion and Society [CISRS], 1966). His

magazines ran for twenty-seven years but few copies are extant

in libraries. His autobiography was never published and is in too

rough a form to be publishable. He wrote some major papers

that appeared in various journals but as yet those have not been

collected and published. My collection of selections and shorter

pieces from his writings, as referenced above, remains the most

accessible source for understanding Das.

e remainder of this article will look at some major themes

in the thought of R. C. Das. Four topics will be touched.

Evangelism was central to Das’ life and concern, so that must

be ﬁrst. Evangelism for Das could not be separate from in-

digenization, or contextualization to use our modern term,

so that will be second. ird, Das’ approach to traditional

churches and missions must be noted. Finally, his creative

thought in relation to Hinduism will be outlined.

Das as Evangelist

It must ﬁrst be highlighted that Das was an evangelist and

among Christians was a promoter and teacher on evangelizing

Hindus. His booklet

How to Present Christ to a Hindu is a classic

that should be reprinted and studied again.

Das is an impor-

tant ﬁgure in the discipline we now call Indian theology as he

commented on many areas of theological thought. Yet Indian

theology has been a largely theoretical enterprise removed from

practical life. Das was intensely practical, as his focus on evange-

lism indicates, so to consider him as an Indian theologian seems

inappropriate, thus that designation will not be used here.

Das as Contextualizer

For Das, evangelism had to be related to the life and culture of

the people, so he was an avid proponent of what today we call

contextualization (he used the older terminology of

indigenization). Das was an avid proponent of

ashrams as the best site for interacting with

Hindus, and for many years he sponsored

an annual gathering of Christian

sadhus

(religious ascetics) and ashramites to

reﬂect on issues of faith and life.

Das

recognized the centrality of devotional

music in living Hinduism, as noted in his

comment that “music of a high standard .

. . is the most eﬀective instrument to attract

men to religion and spirituality” (1976, 33).

Much more should be said about contextualiza-

tion in the teaching of R. C. Das, but space prohibits

extensive detail. He proposed Hindu architecture for worship

centers, art, ﬂowers and incense in worship, chanting the names

of God/Christ,

arati (an aspect of home or temple worship where

oil lamps are rotated circularly clockwise in front of an image; also

done to honor a human guest), the use of Sanskrit

slokas (quotes

from sacred texts or songs), etc. (Richard 1995, 123–4). Surely if

Das were alive today, he would recognize that modern urban In-

dia has changed, but one suspects he would still press that Hindu

cultures have a strong pull, as well as being largely in line with the

Bible, whereas modernity often undermines the biblical focus on

humility, meditation, bhakti, and service.

Das’ Evaluation of Church and Mission

Related to his deep concern for contextualization, Das was a

rather strident critic of the Indian church and of missionary in-

ﬂuence on the church. We are now in a post-missionary era, so

Das’ thoughts on this topic are only of historical interest. Yet I

ﬁnd his perspective fascinating, compelling, and worthy of deep

reﬂection. e core is that missionaries should leave the church

but not the country; they should let Indian Christians alone to

deal with all the issues of living for Christ in India, and they

should instead engage in pioneer encounters with India’s Hin-

dus, Muslims, tribals, etc. is means he was opposed to part-

nership as the best way for Indians and internationals to relate:

The policy and practice of partnership between Indian and

western churches or of merging and integration of missions

into churches, have done great harm to both church and mis-

sion. It has made the Indian self complacent and uncreative

and obstructed and frustrated the missionary. . . .

Music of a high

standard is the most

effective instrument to

attract men to religion

and spirituality.

(R. C. Das)

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

H. L. Richard 131

I believe in the ideal and principle of partnership but do not

accept it, in the present circumstances, as a policy applied

to the growing but weak church. Partnership, to be real and

benecial to both parties, must be practised between equals;

when the Indian church will be mature and unafraid and on

its own feet it can welcome mission partnership both as re-

gards personnel and policy and resources in order to contact

more effectively its non-Christian environment. . . .

Though the country has attained political liberty the church

still suffers from slavery. She is tied to the apron strings of

mission organisation. She is economically, morally and spiri-

tually dependent on mission supplies. Her own life cannot be

creative under the circumstances. (Richard 1995, 170; from

The Seeker, vol. 6 no. 5, 1952)

Das’ critical evaluation of missionary meddling in church

aﬀairs and Indian Christian subservience to foreign ways

made him unpopular with both missionaries and nationals,

with many exceptions for those who appreciated his insights

and candid criticisms. Someone should undertake a major

study of Das’ views on the church and what a contextual

church would look like, etc., and the relevance of his insights

for modern times.

Das had many critics, most related to his views on missions

and on contextualization (i.e., the use of Hindu forms in

evangelism and worship). I am not sympathetic with criti-

cisms in this area. Das regularly called for “experiments” as he

wanted to free up creativity and release spiritual dynamism

among the followers of Jesus. In 1948 in a paper on “New

Experiments in Religion” he wrote,

Construction is always preceded and accompanied by some

amount of destruction. To build truly Indian Christian theol-

ogy the rst prerequisite is a revolutionary mind. Our young

theologians will have to brag less of their learning which

is secondhand. Out of their own personal experience of

the riches of Christ they will have to weave, humbly and

tremblingly indeed, the warp and woof of its structure in

indigenous terms and thought forms artistically and strongly

too. Then it will touch and tell. (Richard 1995, 101; from The

Guardian, Sept. 20, 1948)

Another criticism of Das can be stated at this point. He

supported “experiments” that had little hope of success, such

as his annual meeting for Christian sadhus referred to above.

He held out a romantic hope that a new Indian church would

emerge from some of the unstable fringes of the Indian

church and mission scene.

Such support and encouragement

for schismatics who left existing churches obviously did not

endear Das to the leadership of churches and missions.

Das on the Gospel in Relation to Hindu Traditions

How to think about “Hinduism” is one of the burning issues

of our day. Massive tomes are being written debating the va-

lidity and utility of the term, and it seems unlikely that debate

will end soon. Conservative Christians seem stuck on the old,

and now thoroughly discredited, idea that Hinduism is “a re-

ligion.” But in academic circles, “religion” is debated as much

or more than even “Hinduism.” R. C. Das, as a practical evan-

gelist, did not produce clear deﬁnitions of these terms, but he

had a clear grasp of Hindu realities and insightfully presented

perspectives that are still helpful today.

Fulﬁllment Thought

During over forty years of writing and commenting, Das made

many points about Hinduism and the encounter of the gospel

with Hindu traditions. To spell out his position in detail is be-

yond the scope of this paper; rather some representative com-

ments will be shared and discussed. First, it can be noted that

Das was largely favorable to the idea that Christ and Christi-

anity fulﬁll Hinduism; but there are some careful nuances to

his understanding, and in the end, I think it better NOT to

consider Das a fulﬁllment advocate. In a 1937 paper on “e

Christian Approach to Popular Hinduism” Das wrote,

. . . Christianity is the fullment of Hinduism in no mechanical

sense. It is not like a dome or tower imposed externally upon

the structure of Hinduism. Christianity is rather like leaven,

qualifying, vitalizing and reshaping the whole system of

Hindu thought, emotion and activity. The moral and spiritual

ideas and practices of Hinduism, in so far as they are true and

noble, are affected as it were by similar but far deeper truths

in Christianity. As Christianity is not essentially a theologi-

cal system or a moral code but a life and spirit inspired and

generated by the Christ living in the hearts of men and trans-

forming them by His dynamic principles, the spiritual and

ethical ideas and attitudes that have emerged from Christian

experience will naturally lay upon similar truths in Hinduism

that have afnities with them. (Richard 1995, 128; from the

National Council of Churches Review, April 1937)

Beyond Fulﬁllment

So fulﬁllment was acceptable to Das, but it was the “life

and spirit inspired and generated by the Christ living in the

hearts of men” in dynamic encounter with Hindu “thought,

emotion and activity” that would produce a new expression

I nd his perspective compelling:

missionaries should leave the church but

not the country; they should let Indian

Christians alone . . . and should instead

engage in pioneer encounters with

India’s Hindus, Muslims, and tribals.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

132 The Life and Thought of R. C. Das: His Theology of Interreligious (Hindu-Christian) Relations

I would add a slight nuance here; the taking possession of

Hindu traditions is for people from Hindu families; those of

us born in Christian families are outsiders who must be very

careful regarding how we approach and engage with Hindu

traditions.

Mutual Possessio

But Das has a more nuanced approach than Bavinck, as he

presents a mutual penetration of the spiritual traditions.

is statement is again from the 1937 paper quoted above:

. . . living Hinduism can easily and normally pass into living

Christianity without serious loss to either. This means that our

study and criticism of popular Hinduism should be dispas-

sionate and constructive, with a view to truth and uninspired

by mere propagandist zeal. Outwardly the evangelist should

live the Hindu life subject to obedience to essential Chris-

tian principles. This will not only disarm opposition and melt

prejudice but will also remove the harmful idea that Christian

conversion is mere change of outward community. We should

stand for genuine heart and life change, entrusting the con-

sequences to the hand of God. . . . (Richard 1995, 132; from

the National Council of Churches Review, April 1937)

Writing on “e Church’s Relation to Hinduism” in 1959

Das used the phrase “discriminating penetration” (Richard

1995, 125; from

e Seeker and Pilgrim, vol. 13 no. 1, 1959). I

would adjust this, and expect Das would approve the change,

to “discriminating mutual interpenetration,” as the disciple of

Jesus “lives a Hindu life” and possesses the riches of a particu-

lar Hindu heritage, while calling Hindus to honor Christ and

make him central to their Hindu life and thought—thus a

mutual taking possession of the heritages of the other.

Das wrote on this point again in a paper in 1962, addressing

. . . the important question of the relationship of Christianity

to Hinduism—concretely that of the Hindu convert to his

past and to the country. The proper relation must be fairly

intelligently and emotionally grasped otherwise there is

the danger of either (a) aloofness—resulting in an inef-

fective barren Christian life or (b) indiscriminate mixing—

consequence being a at syncretism. The heritage of India

in its spiritual as well as cultural aspects belongs to the

of discipleship to Jesus. In a paper written six years later on

“A Modern Apologetics for Hinduism,” Das envisioned a

similar type of interreligious engagement:

Attacking Hinduism from outside is like beating the wind

or the water—Christianity must leaven and transform Hin-

duism from the inside. Votaries of truth need neither be

alarmed nor delighted that in the process a good deal of

Hinduism will be surely destroyed. It is the conviction of the

writer that eventually Hinduism as a system will die a slow

natural death and live within the church as a force, inspira-

tion and mentality. Should Christianity or need Christianity

suppress, supplant and uproot Hinduism or rather should

Christianity transplant, transform, vitalise its ideas and in-

stitutions with Christian spirit, direction and motive? It is

futile to attack Hinduism from without, however spiritual

our weapons of warfare. A militant religion cannot destroy

another religion that looks inward for power and support.

The Christian leaven must be allowed to work from within. If

this is done Hindu institutions and organizations—its legal-

istic system—will die, while the true treasures—the ethical

and spiritual values—cleansed and replenished by Christian

graces, will live within the church. Up to now the Christian

leaven has worked very partially in the intellectual life of

educated India but the spiritual springs and moral intuitions

of Hinduism remain untouched. In a way it is quite urgent to

inuence the social and public life of India with the Christian

verities of liberty, equality and fraternity and with the Chris-

tian standards of purity, truth and rectitude—which is possi-

ble only if and when the Christian community will act as salt

and light, losing itself in the service of men, always being

ready to discharge obligations without claiming rights for

itself. (Das 1943, 22; partially reprinted in Richard 1995, 77)

In analyzing this statement, it must ﬁrst be noted that

“Christianity” and “Hinduism” are used in reiﬁed ways that

do not really ﬁt with the major point being made. e point is

clearly

against an opposition of Christianity and Hinduism as

competing religions; “Christianity” is to go inside of “Hindu-

ism” and transform it. Much of Hinduism will be destroyed

in this process, but an unstated assumption is that much of

Christianity will also be discarded (triumphalistic, colonial,

militant Christianity must also die).

Possessio

In that same paper Das posed this same issue as a question:

Will Christianity face and touch this Hinduism from outside

from the standpoint of an institution and a creed however

good and true and thus supplant it or contact it and possess

it, revivify it and regenerate it like a dynamic movement of

the Divine Spirit? (Das 1943, 17)

“Christianity” taking possession of “Hinduism” and regener-

ating it presents a rich and profound perspective on gospel

engagement with Hindu traditions. is ﬁts with Dutch mis-

siologist J. H. Bavinck’s missiological position, that

possessio

is the proper approach to other cultures and faith traditions.

Attacking Hinduism

from outside is like beating the wind

or the water—Christianity must

leaven and transform Hinduism

from the inside. (R. C. Das)

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

H. L. Richard 133

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

Hindu convert to Christianity as to the Hindu himself. The

difference is the Hindu accepts and follows the tradition

blindly whereas the convert uses his judgment enlightened

by Christian truth and rejects everything that is inconsistent

with Biblical revelation. But he does not do it in any me-

chanical way. To a true believer and lover of his country it

just happens. It is spontaneous. Because the word of God

made esh—Jesus Christ—is the truth all truths nd their

fullment in and through Him. He is the energising and di-

recting spirit and judge of all and keeps his disciples from

falling into error. . . . (Das 1962b: 21–22)

Two quibbles should be noted related to this statement. “e

Hindu convert to Christianity” is not an acceptable descrip-

tion for the person who is doing what Das is talking about.

is is a follower of Jesus to whom “the heritage of India in

its spiritual as well as cultural aspects belongs.” He or she

has embraced Hindu ways so is truly Hindu, not a convert to

“Christianity.” Second, Das is too negative towards Hindus;

surely some “blindly” accept and follow tradition, but many

are engaged in spontaneous and intuitive transformation of

Hindu life and thought, the very kind of transformative pro-

cess that Das is calling disciples of Jesus to engage in. e

disciple of Jesus does this under the guidance of the Spirit of

Christ and of the Bible, but spontaneous change from Hindu

agents is manifestly and rapidly happening to Hindu tradi-

tions all around us.

Christ as King of Hinduism

I suspect this approach to the Hindu-Christian encounter is

stretching the parameters of many, but I want to give one last

stretch before closing this summary of R. C. Das’ perspective.

In a 1952 paper on “Hinduism: e Source of Its Power” Das

suggested that

To meet Hinduism in its anti-Christian aspects or to absorb

Hinduism on its pro-Christian side, historical Christianity

with its modern missions might nd the task too difcult

and complex. . . . But when Jesus Christ is disentangled from

theology and historical phenomena and presented as a sav-

iour, master and God he will both by his power and wisdom

possess the stronghold and himself become its king and

commander. (Das 1952, 8–9)

Traditional Christianity is probably not capable of coping

with the vision Das lays out for taking possession of Hindu

traditions, but here he looks forward to Christ himself bring-

ing this to pass. Christ himself can possess Hindu traditions

and emerge as king. is too easily becomes another variety

of Christian triumphalism, but in this vision Christianity is

not involved; this is a reviviﬁed and regenerated Hinduism

that is still true to its ancient roots.

Already in 1926 Das laid out a vision of this glorious

possibility:

Touched by the magic wand of Christ, the great soul of India

will reveal the mysterious depths of its moral and spiritual

resources to the wonder and lasting good of all mankind.

To the Indian heart illumined by the light of the cross will

be manifest the wonders, beauty and fascinating power of

the love of God in a manner, and with a result, undreamt

of before. (Richard 1995, 106; from the National Council of

Churches Review, Feb. 1926)

Conclusion

R. C. Das’ vision of India and Hinduism transformed by

Christ almost takes one’s breath away. His vision is well sup-

ported by the Bible (1 Cor. 3:21–22, for example) and by mis-

siological thought (as seen in Bavinck and the current con-

sensus on contextualization). In light of Das’ understanding

it must be said that the task of engaging Hindu India with

the good news of Christ has hardly begun. We are ignorant,

ill-equipped, unaware even of how far we are from ready to

engage the Hindu world. May this paper, may the legacy of

R. C. Das, awaken us to realization of the high call still wait-

ing for response; the call of engagement with the fascinating

complexity of Hindu traditions and the varieties of people

(image bearers of God) who identify as Hindu.

IJFM

To the Indian heart,

illumined by the light of the cross,

will be manifest the wonders, beauty,

and fascinating power

of the love of God. (R. C. Das)

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

134 The Life and Thought of R. C. Das: His Theology of Interreligious (Hindu-Christian) Relations

Endnotes

About the Brahmo Samaj, David Kopf wrote, “Originally the Calcutta Unitarian Committee in 1823, the Brahmo Sabha in 1829, and ﬁnally the

Brahmo Samaj in 1843, this community played a crucial role in the genesis and development of every major religious, social, and political movement

in India from about 1820 to 1930. Brahmos were the ﬁrst Hindus to defy the taboo about crossing the seas to the West. ey were the ﬁrst social

reformers, and the ﬁrst to extend full equality to their women. Brahmos were the pioneers of liberal political consciousness and Indian nationalism,

and they introduced ethical and professional standards into Indian law, medicine, natural sciences, teaching, journalism, and civil administration.

Signiﬁcantly, the man often known as the ‘Father of modern India,’ Rammohun Roy, was also the founder of the Brahmo Samaj.” (Kopf 1979, xiii)

Das met the Christo-centric Keshab Chandra Sen faction of the Brahmo Samaj in the years of its declining inﬂuence after Keshab’s 1884 death.

e details of the birth and death of the Benares United City Mission are outlined in my doctoral thesis which is accessible at http://uir.

unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/4657 (see chapter two, “e Benares United City Mission,” 99–119).

Much has changed since 1951, but the noted Indian Christian thinker P. Chenchiah commented that “It [How to Present Christ to a

Hindu

] contains in a short compass almost the whole of mature Indian Christian thinking on the subject and gives a correct picture of

the Hindu religious psychology—very rare to get” (

e Pilgrim vol. 9, no. 4, Dec. 1950: 19). e “Hindu religious psychology” remains

“rare to get.” It is arguably not drastically diﬀerent from what it was a century ago, particularly in relation to Christ and Christianity, and

lies largely outside the grasp of Christians.

Das was more than a little skeptical about the quality of Christian sadhus. He wrote in 1970 saying “We have had experience of nearly a

hundred Christian sadhus—good, bad, indiﬀerent—having stayed in the Khristpanthi Ashram, Varanasi over the past forty years. ese

and many others have ﬁlled the Christian community in India. Some 25% of them are good, helpful and exemplary. e rest are wicked

and even dangerous. . . . Even the good ones have not all kept their vows of celibacy and poverty. ey have been acquisitive. Once they

have collected some money or have fallen in love with some midwife or teacher or widow, they have built good houses and married. eir

preaching has been a cloak to hide their worldly ambitions . . .” (Richard 1995, 115; from

e Church of Christ vol. 7 no. 4, 1970).

Many blindspots can be identiﬁed in the missionary work that led to the Indian church, but most glaring has to be the failure to recognize

the centrality of culturally appropriate music. Now there is a discipline of ethnomusicology to address this failure, and it needs to become

much more widely known in India. But current Christians have embraced from the heart forms of music which do not touch the hearts of

Hindus; this remains a massive problem in eﬀective communication to Hindus.

Two quotations in support of my suggestion about “romantic hope”: “It will be easy to see now that the history of the baptised and

unbaptised Hindu Christian movement and the indigenous church movement led by baptised Hindu intelligentsia is fairly long, ancient,

diverse and widespread” (Richard 1995, 218; from

e Church of Christ vol. 5 no. 3, 1968). “is is only one of hundreds of signs and

evidences of the utter discontent among the diﬀerent denominations and we regard them as the birth pangs of the true and indigenous

church in India which must emerge and replace the myriad sects that have come from the west” (Richard 1995, 220–1; from

e Seeker

vol. 7 no. 1, 1953, commenting on the “All One in Christ Church” being started in Bengal).

See my brief exposition of possessio in Richard 2011.

References

Das, R. C. “A Modern Apologetics for Hinduism.” In e Pilgrim vol. 3, no. 1 (1943): 15–24.

Das, R. C. “Hinduism: e Source of Its Power.” In

e Pilgrim vol. 11 no. 1 (1952): 5–9.

Das, R. C. “Letters.” In e Seeker and Pilgrim, vol. 16 no. 6 (1962): 21–22.

Das, R. C. “Autobiographical Reﬂections.” Unpublished manuscript, 1976.

Kopf, David.

e Brahmo Samaj and the Shaping of the Modern Indian Mind. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.

Richard, H. L., ed. R. C. Das: Evangelical Prophet for Contextual Christianity. Confessing the Faith in India. Delhi: ISPCK for Bangalore:

Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1995.

Richard, H. L. “All ings Are Yours.” In Mission Frontiers, vol. 33 no. 3 (May 2011): 13–14. http://www.missionfrontiers.org/issue/article/

all-things-are-yours. Reprinted in Understanding Insider Movements: Disciples of Jesus within Diverse Religious Communities. Edited

by Harvey Talman and John Travis. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2015.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 135

Elizabeth L. Walker has lived in close

relationship in Hindu communities for

thirteen years: six in India, seven in

America. She and her husband enjoy

mentoring and training other followers

of Jesus how to respectfully and lovingly

live in relationship with Hindu families.

Beyond Contextualization

eremonies and rituals within another religious culture are often met

with confusion, skepticism, or reluctance by cross-cultural workers.

Many followers of Jesus spend years arduously learning language and

new methods of gospel communication yet can neglect to learn the powerful

symbolic communication that takes place through ritual and ceremony. My

experiences of friendship with Hindu people over the past thirteen years would

have been much shallower without mutual participation in ritual. I have learned

that ritual, ceremony, tradition, and formality are some of the primary ways

that my friends show their closeness to me—and I show my closeness to them.

I moved to India in the summer of 2009, one month after graduating college, just

short of my twenty-second birthday. Before this move halfway across the world, I

had exactly one South Asian friend. Arriving in India, I loved being immersed in

another culture, learning and observing its norms, traditions, and ways of life. As

an outsider, who grew up primarily in White American culture, almost everything

about the way my new Indian friends lived their lives was diﬀerent than mine.

Over time, I began to notice many rituals and routines. My Hindu friends had rou-

tines when waking in the morning, prescribed ways of leaving the home, prescribed

ways of returning home, and traditions around mealtimes and worship. It seemed as

if one day of my friends’ lives included more ritual and tradition than an entire month

of mine. Since this ﬁrst arrival in India, my Hindu friends and I have walked through

some of life’s most sacred and special occasions together. We have each gotten mar-

ried, had children, moved, gotten new jobs, and bought houses. ese important

moments in life have often been celebrated and commemorated through ritual and

ceremony. Participating in the formality of these rituals has deepened my friendships

immensely and brought unique opportunities to authentically share my faith in Jesus.

In this paper I want to address this ceremonial aspect of Hindu society—why it is

important, how it is seen in the lives of Hindus, and how followers of Jesus may

appropriately participate in it. I humbly admit that I write not as an academic, but as

a friend of Hindus sharing my own lived ethnographic experiences.

Ceremonialism:

Ritual as a Pathway for Relationship

by Elizabeth L. Walker

Editor’s Note: is paper was originally presented at a gathering of the Rethinking Forum

sponsored by Marg Network in Dallas on July 22–24, 2022.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

136 Ceremonialism: Ritual as a Pathway for Relationship

acceptance. In my relationships with Hindu friends, there is a

seemingly clear unspoken rule that “if we are friends, we show

up at each other’s events.” By attending and participating in

ceremonies in prescribed ways, guests uphold cultural

expectations and “bless” the family (quite literally

the term my Hindu friends use). e blessing

that is desired in these contexts is presence

and well wishes, the former communicat-

ed by attendance and the latter commu-

nicated by participating in appropriate

formalities such as bringing gifts, greet-

ing family members, and touching the

head (or sprinkling rice and/or ﬂower

petals upon the head) of the person(s)

being celebrated at the event.

What Does Ceremonialism Look Like?

As mentioned previously, ceremonialism in Hindu

culture is most clearly seen through the life cycle of a Hindu

family. Hindu tradition and ancient texts dictate sixteen

sam-

skaras,

which are considered rites of passage in a Hindu per-

son’s life. It is the duty of parents to conduct these rituals for

their children. ese ceremonies are both times of celebration

and times of prayer for blessing upon a child or family.

Of the sixteen required samskaras, the ﬁrst fourteen occur

from conception through adolescence. e ﬁrst three sams-

karas occur before birth (during the mother’s pregnancy), the

next four occur in the ﬁrst year of life, and the next three dur-

ing childhood. Many of these infant and childhood ceremo-

nies commemorate important “ﬁrsts” for the child—e.g., ﬁrst

outing, ﬁrst bite of solid food, ﬁrst haircut, and ﬁrst time writ-

ing the alphabet. Four more rituals typically take place dur-

ing adolescence, signifying the growth of knowledge, physical

maturity, and spiritual awareness. Lastly, the ﬁnal two sams-

karas are marriage rites and funeral rites.

Beyond the traditional sixteen samskaras, Hindu families

often bring an element of ceremonialism to modern life.

When a Hindu family moves into a new home, it is very

common for the family to host a

griha pravesh, a ceremony

commemorating the family’s move and to pray for God’s

blessings upon them in their new residence. Many families

will also take part in speciﬁc rituals when making a large pur-

chase (such as buying a car) or opening a new business, and

ﬁrst birthday parties have become one of the largest celebra-

tions for many contemporary Hindu families.

How each ritual is performed and celebrated varies widely

by community: (1) by region or language aﬃliation (e.g.,

Bengalis, Gujaratis, Tamils, etc.), and (2) by

jati, i.e., the ex-

tended family clan. While all sixteen samskaras are honored

Why is Ceremonialism Important?

When I use the term “ceremonialism,”

I am referring to the

aﬃnity my Hindu friends have for ritual, ceremony, tradition,

and formality in their lives. While the daily life of

most Hindus includes many rituals and tradi-

tions, the ceremonial nature of Hindu soci-

ety is seen most clearly through the lens

of family life, during what are known as

“life cycle events.” Life cycle events are

the iconic, signiﬁcant moments that

mark the passage of time through a per-

son’s life, such as birth, coming-of-age

ceremonies, marriage, and death.

Ceremonialism in a culture is important

for many reasons. First, ceremonializing life

events creates meaning and highlights what is

important to a group of people. To determine what

life events are most signiﬁcant within a culture, look ﬁrst to

its ceremonies. In every culture, people gather together, cook

special food, wear special clothing, and give gifts for those

events in life that they hold most sacred. Ceremonialism al-

lows a culture to create meaning for its own participants as

well as create a broader sense of identity for the community.

Second, ceremonializing life events can make an event feel “more

real.”

While life events can occur without ceremonies, certain

aspects of familiar rituals signify to our hearts and minds that

an event is truly happening. Furthermore, when the rituals and

traditions we associate with major life events are missing, it can

feel as if the event never took place. e COVID-19 pandemic

brought this experience to each of our lives. Holidays spent

alone instead of with family, graduates who never walked to re-

ceive their diploma, and couples who married without friends

and family present, all struggled to believe time had passed and

life changes had occurred. On a mental and emotional level, cer-

emony brings reality to the life experiences taking place.

ird, ceremonializing life events communicates without words.

In Indian contexts, each religious community, each caste, and

even each family has its own way of performing certain ritu-

als, and these rituals require the participation of speciﬁc family

members in speciﬁc ways. A family demonstrates its cultural

identity, religious beliefs, important relationships, and values

through the way they conduct their rituals and ceremonies.

ese elements of family identity are communicated nonver-

bally, without the need for words, through the language of cer-

emony. Ritual then becomes the nonverbal language of culture.

Lastly, ceremonializing life events allows the community to

participate in the life of the family. is point is especially

salient in Hindu society. Attendance at important life cycle

events communicates closeness in relationship and mutual

Family identity is

communicated through

ceremony and ritual,

the nonverbal

language of culture.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Elizabeth L. Walker 137

and recognized in Hindu families across India and the Indian

diaspora abroad, diﬀerent communities and families will con-

sider some rituals more signiﬁcant than others. Where the

ritual is performed also varies by community and family as

does the number of guests invited. Some rituals are celebrated

at home or at a temple privately, and others are celebrated at

a large rented venue with many guests present. For some ritu-

als, the family may perform the prescribed traditions them-

selves, while for other rituals, the family may hire a priest to

conduct the rites. Lastly, the speciﬁc name of each samskara

varies by language group.

Describing how two diﬀerent language communities may

choose to celebrate a representative ceremony, the

anna

prashana

(commonly referred to as the “rice ceremony,” a

ritual commemorating a child’s ﬁrst bite of solid food, which

is typically boiled rice),

can illustrate how signiﬁcant these

diﬀerences in ceremony can be. A Bengali family in Kolkata

may rent a venue and have a large celebration for their child’s

mukhe bhaat (the most common name for the rice ceremony

in West Bengal), inviting many family members and friends,

catering a meal for the guests, and hiring a priest to perform

the rites. A Telugu family living in America may recognize

their child’s ﬁrst bite of food at home with close relatives and

a small pooja (i.e., worship time to a speciﬁc god or goddess)

performed by the parents. ough all Hindu communities

will have some general notion of the rites that need to be per-

formed for each samskara, answering the questions of where,

when, how, and by whom will vary dramatically between

communities, jatis, and families.

My personal observation is that the ceremonies most likely

to be celebrated on a large scale (and which guests outside of

the family are invited to attend) are: the baby shower (often

called godh bharai); a baby’s naming ceremony (often called

naamkaran, or in some communities it is known as a “cradle

ceremony”); and marriage rites (shaadi is the word most com-

monly used for “wedding”). Hindu weddings actually include

many speciﬁc ceremonies such as

mehndi (the henna party),

haldi (the turmeric party), sangeet (the music and dances per-

formed by the bride, groom, and family members),

baarat

(the groom’s arrival procession), pheras (the marriage vows in

which the bride and groom walk in circles around a sacred

ﬁre), and many others. Additionally, for some communities, a

baby’s anna prashana (as described above), a child’s ﬁrst haircut

ceremony (often called

mundan), or an adolescent’s “thread

ceremony” (sometimes called an “investiture ceremony” or

upanayana, a ritual in which forward-caste males receive a

sacred thread which they wear throughout their lifetimes) are

also occasions for larger celebrations. In my years of knowing

Hindus, it seems that each region or language block has a spe-

cial aﬃnity for one or another of the samskaras.

It is important to note that rituals and ceremonies in Hindu

culture are often holistic sensory experiences; they involve all

ﬁve senses—sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch. ere are

bright colors, many decorations, and possibly images of gods

or goddesses. ere are unique smells from incense, ﬂowers,

and the food being prepared. ere is always special food that

is given to the family members and guests. ere are many

sounds, either music, religious chanting, or the loud chatter

of family members in attendance. Lastly, there are physical

ways the guests are involved in the ceremony, most likely by

“blessing” the child or couple that is the focus of the ritual.

As mentioned previously, this blessing is typically done by

sprinkling rice and/or ﬂower petals on the honoree’s head.

How Can Followers of Jesus Respond to

Ceremonialism?

As incarnational witnesses living in relationship with Hindu

communities, there are two appropriate ways that followers of

Jesus can respond to ceremonialism in our Hindu friends’ lives:

• We can attend and participate in our Hindu friends’

ceremonies.

• We can invite our Hindu friends to participate in our

lives through ceremony.

A third option is that we avoid all rituals and ceremonies we

are invited to attend by our Hindu friends. Although this is a

common view among faithful Christians largely due to a fear

of syncretism, I do not believe this is necessary or best. ere

may be a handful of speciﬁc instances where it is prudent

to avoid certain invitations. But, generally speaking, to avoid

participating in ceremonial activities with our Hindu friends

is to greatly hinder our ability to build strong relationships

with Hindu people. Hindering our ability to build relation-

ships hinders our ability to demonstrate and articulate the

good news of Jesus with Hindus. My life experience echoes

what I ﬁrst heard from Timothy Shultz, that Hindus receive

truth through “webs of meaningful relationships.”

In the

Hindu worldview, attending and participating in our friends’

life event rituals is a crucial step in developing a meaningful

relationship of trust.

To avoid participating in ceremonial

activities is to greatly hinder our

ability to build strong relationships

with Hindu people.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

138 Ceremonialism: Ritual as a Pathway for Relationship

Attendance and Participation in Our Hindu Friends’

Ceremonies

As friendships between Hindus and Christians develop, there

will inevitably come a time when a Hindu friend invites a

Christian friend to attend a function (this is the generic term

many Hindus use for special life event rituals) or pooja (this

term can be used either speciﬁcally for a worship ceremony to

a speciﬁc deity or generally to describe any ritual that has some

religious signiﬁcance). is invitation communicates relational

closeness and acceptance from the Hindu friend, yet it often

invokes fear in the heart of the Christian friend. We wonder,

What will happen at this event? Will I be the only non-Hindu

there? What will they ask me to do? Does it mean I am wor-

shipping their god/goddess if I go? Will I compromise my

witness by being there? Is there demonic activity involved?

It is understandable to feel fear or uncertainty when we are

asked to attend an event we have never witnessed before, from

a culture other than our own, and led by friends with diﬀerent

religious beliefs. Years of Bible study and conversations with

Hindus have led me to believe that attendance and measured

degrees of participation can easily co-exist with my faith in

Jesus and my witness for him among my Hindu friends.

In discussing this topic with many followers of Jesus who are

friends of Hindus, I believe most of our concerns regarding

attendance at Hindu ceremonies can be summarized in three

main questions:

• Will I worship another god by attending?

• Will I give the appearance of worshipping another god

by attending?

• What will happen at this event, and what will I be asked

to participate in?

Regarding the ﬁrst question, my personal, prayerful study of

Scripture has led me to the conclusion that worship is an act of

the heart, the bestowing of my praise, adoration, love, and obe-

dience to a speciﬁc deity. I knowingly and mindfully worship

the triune God—that is, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. ere

can be a fear in attending ceremonies that we will “accidentally”

worship another god; however, I humbly suggest that these fears

are founded in an understanding of worship as a set of actions

rather than a posture of the heart. If worship truly occurs on a

heart level, I am conﬁdent I will give my praise, adoration, love,

and obedience to none other than Jesus no matter what is going

on around me. Worship is an act of the will, and mere atten-

dance alone does not mean that I am worshipping another god.

If I believe I am not worshipping another god by attendance, then

the next question to address is, “Will my attendance give the ap-

pearance to others that I am worshipping this other deity?” e

best people to answer this question are actually the other Hin-

dus in attendance. Over the years, when attending ceremonial

events, I have asked many of my Hindu friends, “What does it

mean to you that I am here?” Invariably, the answer is always,

“It means that you are my friend.” I know many other followers

of Jesus who are friends of Hindus who ask this same question.

eir friends answer the same way. In total, I could count dozens

and dozens of answers that attendance means friendship. I have

never once heard of a Hindu answering this question by saying,

“It means you are worshipping this deity.”

rough these personal conversations with Hindus, I am con-

vinced that attendance at Hindu functions and poojas does not

mean I am worshipping another deity nor does it confuse my

friends’ understanding of my faith in Jesus. If I bring up the subject

of devotion and worship at a ceremony, my friends say things like,

“Yes, yes, Elizabeth, we know that you follow Jesus.” If I can be

conﬁdent in what is communicated through attendance, the next

question that arises is, “What will happen at this event, and what

will I be asked to participate in?” I believe answers to questions

of participation require a more nuanced and Spirit-led approach.

I would like to brieﬂy “peek behind the curtain,” and share what

most likely happens at these types of events as well as how I and

others I know typically handle issues of participation. While

all ceremonies and rituals are diﬀerent, and the context of each

event and family is unique, some generic themes can be noted.

Upon entering the home or venue, you will be asked to remove

your shoes. Many guests will be dressed in traditional ethnic

attire (especially, women and children). In my experience, men

and women tend to congregate separately, although gender sep-

aration is not as rigid as in other cultures. You will notice many

guests or family members laughing and talking. You may hear

music being played or chanting. e person who is the focus of

the event (often a child) will be dressed in special clothing.

For the ritual aspect of the ceremony, family members may

perform a pooja that most likely involves a brass oil lamp

(known as

diya), incense (known as agarbaati), camphor tab-

lets that are burned (known as

aarti), fruit, ﬂowers, and one or

more idols or pictures of gods and/or goddesses. Either a fam-

ily member or a hired priest will perform the pooja or rituals.

Normally, this part of the ceremony involves the immediate

This invitation to attend a Hindu

function communicates relational

closeness, yet we wonder,

“Does it mean I am worshiping their

god or goddess if I go?“

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Elizabeth L. Walker 139

family members (parents and child) while other guests ob-

serve what is happening. e person performing the rituals

may bring a plate with burning aarti around to guests and you

will notice guests wave their hands over the ﬁre and then touch

their hair, eyes, or heart. e priest or family mem-

bers may put a colored powder mark (known as

tikka) on the foreheads of those in atten-

dance. e priest or family members may

also distribute food (usually some form of

sweets or fruit) from the worship plate

to guests, called

prasad.

All of these gestures are signs of hospi-

tality from the family to you and are the

family’s way of blessing you as their guest.

Acceptance or refusal of these gestures is an

admittedly complex topic. ere are spiritual

elements to the aarti, tikka, and prasad; Hindu

families vary widely on what they believe spiritually,

what these elements mean to them, and why they oﬀer them

to you. You may accept these gestures, if you desire, or you may

politely decline these gestures, if you desire, by pressing your

two hands together (palms together, as in a praying or

namaste

greeting position), smiling, and saying “no thank you.” I know

followers of Jesus, whom I respect greatly, that both accept and

decline these aspects of the ceremony. Personally, my response

to each varies by the setting, occasion, family, and the Holy

Spirit’s leading in the moment.

ere may also be a time during the ceremony when each

guest blesses the honoree of the event by sprinkling rice and/

or ﬂower petals on his/her head (as mentioned previously). I

would encourage any follower of Jesus to participate in this

part of the ceremony. Another aspect of blessing that you may

see is children touch the feet of elders, including you, and

the appropriate response in these situations is to touch the

head of the child with your right hand. Both of these formali-

ties are the most tangible ways that you as a guest show your

well-wishes, love, and respect for the family. For most modern

Hindu families, these formalities have little to no “spiritual”

signiﬁcance but are meaningful rituals that communicate love

and blessing. Lastly, these events always end with a meal.

One of your Hindu hosts’ deepest concerns at any event is

that you are comfortable. ey will not knowingly push you

to do things that make you uncomfortable, although they may

unknowingly ask you to participate in ways you would rather

avoid. You are always free to respectfully decline involvement,

to sit toward the back of the group as an observer rather than

a participant, or to ask your friends to guide you in appro-

priate participation. You can tell your Hindu friends, “You

know that I am a follower of Jesus, and I have promised to

worship only him. Can you tell me what I should or should

not do as his devotee?” You can heed the words of your Hindu

friends while submitting most strongly to the voice of the

Holy Spirit.

I would also like to note that these are my

experiences as an outsider living in friend-

ships with Hindu people. ese are the lev-

els of meaning and freedom that I have

experienced. I recognize that the experi-

ences of Hindu people who begin to fol-

low Jesus may be diﬀerent within their

own context. Some families will accept

a family member’s devotion to Jesus and

how they desire to participate in rituals

as a follower of Jesus. Other families may

pressure the family member to participate

in ways in which he/she feels uncomfortable.

I have walked alongside Hindu friends believing in

Jesus who have experienced both responses. e people most

able to speak to appropriate levels of participation in Hindu

ceremonies as insiders (as Hindus or members of the family)

are followers of Jesus who are Hindus, not myself.

Inviting Our Friends to Participate in Our Lives

Through Ceremony

In addition to participating in our Hindu friends’ lives

through ritual, followers of Jesus must look for ways that we

can share our lives with our Hindu friends through ceremony

as well. My husband and I have lived in Hindu communi-

ties through our engagement, marriage, and the births of our

children, and through these experiences we learned that we

must create ceremony where it does not naturally exist to ad-

equately and meaningfully share our lives with our Hindu

friends. As we share our lives, we have the opportunity to

share our faith, and, for us, our relationships and our witness

for Jesus have grown stronger the more we have incorporated

ceremony. A few stories will illustrate how sharing our lives

through ceremony has happened for our family. Please know

these stories are descriptive of a principle, not prescriptive in

nature. Incorporating ceremony into your life will look diﬀer-

ent for each follower of Jesus who is a friend of Hindus.

Engagement

My husband and I met and became engaged while living in

India. We are both Americans, and he proposed to me in the

typical “American” way of getting down on one knee, asking

me to marry him, and giving me an engagement ring. Shortly

afterward, I began calling my Indian friends to tell them the

exciting news. To my surprise, my friends were overall mostly

oﬀended by my announcement! e common response was,

“Why didn’t you call me?” (which I understood to mean,

Worship is

an act of the will and

mere attendance does

not mean

I am worshipping

another god.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

140 Ceremonialism: Ritual as a Pathway for Relationship

unsure how to respond because I had no baby shower planned.

I explained that in my culture the couple does not host their

own baby shower but that friends host the event for them.

Eventually, my friends approached my husband and said:

Elizabeth said her friends host the baby shower. We are her

friends. We will throw her a baby shower. We don’t know

how to do it your way [meaning, according to American cul-

ture], so we are going to do it our way.

ese friends, along with the help of my husband, hosted a

surprise baby shower for me. e party included dressing me up

in jewelry, each lady putting bangles on my wrist (because “ba-

bies love the sound of bangles”), my husband and each friend

blessing me by putting a mixture of rice and ﬂower petals on

my head, my husband and friends feeding me special food that

had been prepared for this occasion, and taking many pictures.

A few months later, we had another group of friends from

our apartment community ask to host a baby shower for us,

again, using their own cultural traditions. is baby show-

er included similar activities: dressing me up in a sari and

jewelry, my husband and friends feeding me special food,

my husband and friends blessing me by placing rice on my

head, and a baby-themed photo shoot. All of the friends who

hosted these baby showers for me are Hindus, and they also

know that I am devoted to Jesus. Without even discussing it

together, each of these baby showers appeared traditional in

terms of Hindu customs and traditions but did not include

the worship of any Hindu god or goddess. My friends desired

to bless me with their customs while also honoring my spiri-

tual beliefs. It is truly possible for both of us to live in friend-

ship, participating respectfully in each other’s worldview.

First Food Ceremony

My last story comes after the birth of our ﬁrst child, a baby

boy. My husband and I were still living in the apartment com-

munity, and as people would meet our son, they would ask

us when his rituals and ceremonies would be. I would often

sheepishly reply, “We don’t really have many ceremonies for

a baby in our culture.” As this conversation happened repeat-

edly, I began to sense that our neighbors were getting oﬀend-

ed that we had yet to invite them to some type of ceremony

or event for our son. I could perceive that they wanted to

bless our family and the way they knew how to do that was

through ceremony. So, as previously, to ﬁll this relational gap

and share our lives with our friends, we went about planning

a Hindu-style ceremony for our son.

Since we were living in America and our friends deeply desired

to see our cultural traditions, we ultimately planned a ceremony

that combined both an American-style baby dedication as one

would see at a church and the anna prashana ceremony men-

tioned previously. We chose this ceremony because it typically

“Why didn’t you invite me?”). I tried to explain that my ﬁancé

had surprised me, that I did not know I was getting engaged,

and that there was no way I could have invited them. ese

assurances did little to convince my friends of my innocence.

After a few of these conversations, I began to realize that my

friends thought there had been a formal engagement ceremo-

ny, and I had not invited them. It dawned on me that, for my

Hindu friends, an engagement is a formal public ceremony

between two families. In an eﬀort to share this part of my

life with my Hindu friends, my ﬁancé (now husband) and I

set about planning a Hindu-style engagement ceremony in

which my friends could participate.

With the help of my closest Hindu friends, we spent weeks

preparing for the event. We ordered special invitations and

delivered them personally to guests. We bought new clothes

and jewelry and hired decorators, caterers, and photogra-

phers. It was indeed a massive project.

We had over one hundred friends and neighbors join us for

this engagement ceremony. It was a very special time for me

to celebrate with my community and for them to celebrate

with me. Multiple friends traveled hundreds of miles by bus

or plane to be there. Many of my coworkers, friends, and

neighbors came to share in the occasion, and we had guests

ages one year old to eighty years old in attendance. As all

good Indian parties do, our evening ended with dancing and

a photo shoot. I was married a few months later and moved to

another city. is event was a very meaningful opportunity for

me to say goodbye to my friends. How diﬀerent this engage-

ment ceremony was from my American-style engagement!

In one way, my friends could not participate; in the other, the

whole community participated and was able to bless us.

Baby Showers

A few years later, my husband and I moved back from India to

America. We lived in an apartment community full of many

Hindu families. After living in the community for a few years,

we became pregnant and were expecting our ﬁrst child. Our

friends were so happy! Our Hindu neighbors quickly began

asking me when my baby shower would be. At ﬁrst, I was

Without discussing it,

these baby showers were traditional in

Hindu customs and traditions but did

not include the worship

of any Hindu god or goddess.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Elizabeth L. Walker 141

e immediate response to this ceremony for our son was

incredibly positive. Although our ceremony centered on wor-

ship to Jesus, many friends told us that we did this ceremony

pakka (meaning “perfect, accurate, and well-done”). Some

even told us we did the ceremony more traditionally and fully

than they had performed it for their own children. ere was

a feeling of excitement, and our friends felt honored that we

chose to incorporate their traditions into our special event for

our son. I have a distinct memory of looking around the room

and seeing smiles and so much joy on every face.

e impact of this ceremony has also been long-lasting. Some

friends desired to learn more about Jesus and to join us in wor-

shipping him after this event. One friend has shown videos of

the ceremony and the worship time to hundreds of relatives

across the US and India. Another friend told us that he felt

peace as he rewatched videos of the worship time during the

COVID-19 pandemic. Most importantly, relationships with

friends in our community were deepened as our friends par-

ticipated in the life of our family and blessed us in ways that

were meaningful to both them and us. And as so often happens

in Hindu community, as relationships deepen, so do opportu-

nities to demonstrate and articulate the good news of Jesus.

Conclusion

All those who walk in the way of Jesus try to build relationships,

and many who seek to live incarnational lives build relationships

cross-culturally. In the Hindu world, part of building relation-

ships will always be ceremony. Learning to embrace the role

and importance of ceremony in friendships with Hindu people

opens the door for deeper relationships and presents truly au-

thentic opportunities for followers of Jesus to best communicate

their devotion. IJFM

occurs around six months of age, which was the age of our son

at the time. Over ﬁfty families from our apartment community

joined us for this special day, and it was truly a memory we will

never forget!

Our event began with the American-style baby dedication. My

father, who is an ordained minister, led the American component

in which we dedicated our son to God and promised to raise him

according to the teachings of Jesus. Next, my husband told the

crowd, “We are followers of Jesus. We would like to worship him

on this special day. Please join us if you would like.” en, we sang

Hindu-style worship songs about Jesus called

Yeshu bhajans.

After singing, we proceeded to the Hindu rituals of the anna

prashana. First, my husband and I poured special rice from

our hands while we made vows committing our son to God.

en came the highlight of our celebration—our son was fed

his ﬁrst bite of solid food (boiled rice with milk) by his ma-

ternal uncle while both sets of grandparents showered him

with rose petals. e crowd cheered! Next, each of our family

members ceremonially fed our son and blessed him by sprin-

kling rice and ﬂower petals on his head.

We then played a traditional Indian game that is said to reﬂect

what type of person a child will become in life. Many special

items are placed in front of a baby (such as a book, calculator,

paintbrush, pen, money, etc.), and whichever item the child

crawls forward and grabs ﬁrst represents his/her future career.

Our son grabbed the money ﬁrst, which thrilled the crowd!

Our afternoon ended with guests coming up one by one to

bless our son and everyone enjoying a meal together.

Although our ceremony centered on

worship to Jesus, many friends told

us this ceremony was pakka

(perfect, accurate, and well-done).

Endnotes

Many of my thoughts on this subject have been shaped by Pranam Collaborative Learning Services. I am grateful for the opportunity to

lecture with them and learn from them. I highly recommend their programs to all who are friends of Hindus. More information can be

found at https://pranamcolearning.com/.

I ﬁrst read about this idea through an article from Dr. Michael Barnes’ book that is part of the Pranam program. Michael H. Barnes, In

the Presence of Mystery: An Introduction to the Story of Human Religiousness

(Twenty-third Publications: Waterford, CT, 2003), 203.

Timothy Shultz, Disciple Making Among Hindus: Making Authentic Relationships Grow (William Carey Library: Denver, 2016), 58.

Aradhna Music is a great resource for Yeshu bhajans. My family personally uses these songs in our worship with Hindu friends, both by

playing the songs from a phone or computer and by learning and singing them ourselves. Songs can be accessed at https://yeshusatsang-

toronto.bandcamp.com/track/aradhana or at https://www.youtube.com/@aradhnamusic.

References

Barnes, Michael. In the Presence of Mystery: An Introduction to the Story of Human Religiousness. Bayard, 2003.

Shultz, Timothy. Disciple Making Among Hindus: Making Authentic Relationships Grow. William Carey Library, 2016.

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International Journal of Frontier Missiology 39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022 • 143

Herbert Hoefer began his mission-

ary service with the Lutheran Church

Missouri-Synod in India in 1967, as a

teacher, theological educator, and director

of a research institute, before returning

to teach on the faculty of Columbia Uni-

versity/Portland. He is widely known

for his role as a research consultant on

the burgeoning movements of “non-

baptized believers in Christ” among

the Hindu populations of India, and

for the relevant research published in

his ground-breaking book, Churchless

Christianity

(Pasadena, CA: William

Carey Library, 2001).

Beyond Contextualization

here is no more eﬀective evangelism than testimonies to Jesus from

within the community of non-believers. ese testimonies can occur

when a community member has a convincing experience of Jesus

through a miracle, a healing, a vision, or an answer to prayer. In the case of

Swamy Dayanand Bharati, the Holy Spirit has brought a gifted Tamil

bhakti

poet to accept Jesus as his

maha guru (great master). rough his poetry, he

demonstrates to his fellow Hindus how one can be a

Jesu Bhakta (devotee of

Jesus) as a Hindu. One can be a respected and proud member of the culture

under the lordship of Jesus and the authority of Scripture.

Swamy Bharati is ﬁrmly in the bhakti tradition of Hinduism in his devotional

poetry. is is a tradition in which Hindus are very comfortable, especially

those in the South. ereby, Swamy Bharati invites other Hindus to come

to know and accept Jesus as their personal Lord and Saviour. Fellow Hindus

admire the beauty of Swamy Bharati’s poetry and intensity of his devotion, and

some have come to be his disciples. He has innovated a Hindu-style devotional

rite, called the

maha prasad (great blessing) that is being used by Jesu Bhaktas

in home gatherings around the country and abroad. As his devotional poetry

spreads the message, we can expect many more sincere Hindus to be led by the

Holy Spirit to see this path of Jesu Bhakti as the path for them too, now and

for decades to come.

Roots of Jesu Bhakti

In this article on the Jesu Bhakti Hindu poetry of Swamy Dayanand Bharati,

we will begin with a discussion of the strong historical roots of this piety. We

will see how mystical devotion to Jesus has been a universal phenomenon, both

within Christianity and beyond. Poetry is typically used to express this deep

personal devotion; this is also true in the Bible.

A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas:

Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand

Bharati (b. 1952)

by Herbert Hoefer

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

144 A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas: Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati (b. 1952)

it is not surprising that there would also be such mystical

devotion to Jesus within Hinduism. e Hindu Swamy Day-

anand Bharati is an example of such devotion.

Jesu Bhakti in Christianity

e religious philosopher Paul Tillich has been famously

quoted as saying that all religion begins and ends in mysti-

cism. In Christianity, this mystical relationship is with Jesus.

We are all familiar with the mystics in the Roman Catholic

tradition, but we are less aware of the mysticism of the Protes-

tant tradition. is tradition is generally called Pietism.

Pietism arose in the seventeenth century in Europe among

the churches of the Reformation, particularly in Germany.

In the theological battles between Protestantism and Roman

Catholicism, the Christian faith was expressed in intellectual

doctrines. Such scholastic systems of faith were useful for doc-

trinal disputations, but not for spiritual nourishment. It also

fomented disputes that splintered the church into competing

factions. Besides being divisive, the leaders of Pietism felt this

rationalistic expression of the faith was neither transformative

nor personal. ey advocated a mystical expression of the faith

that would transcend denominational divisions and would

demonstrate a devotion to Jesus that could unite all in a spiri-

tual unity. ey expressed and spread this approach to the faith

through mystical hymns. Here are some examples:

Johann Schefer (1624–1677)

Jesus, Savior, come to me;

Let me ever be with ee.

Come and nevermore depart,

ou who reignest in my heart.

Johann Freylinghausen (b. 1670)

Who is there like ee,

Jesus, unto me?

None is like ee, none above ee,

ou art altogether lovely;

None on earth have we,

None in heaven like ee.

Nicolas von Zinzendorf (b. 1700)

Jesus, still lead on

till our rest is won;

and although the way be cheerless,

we will follow, calm and fearless.

Guide us by your hand

to our fatherland.

Jesus, still lead on

till our rest be won.

Heav'nly leader, still direct us,

still support, console, protect us

till we safely stand

in our fatherland.

Jesu Bhakti in Religions

Jesu Bhakti is not limited to Hindu devotees of Jesus. Finding

in Jesus a personal Lord and Guru is a phenomenon among

devotees in all religions, interpreted within their particular

worldview. Here are a few examples:

Suﬁ Islam

“e mystical interpretation of Jesus, in Suﬁsm, remains

highly prized, even though he is not singularly gloriﬁed but

utilized as a powerful transformative idiom for spiritual de-

velopment in Suﬁ literature.”

Kabbalah Mystical Judaism

“ere is no knowledge that proves the Divinity of the

Messiah better than . . . kabbalah.” (Kabbalah Centre, Los

Angeles, CA. Pico della Mirandola [1463-94])

New Age

People ask me all the time, “Is Jesus the only way to God?” I

answer by saying, “He is my way to God.”

Atheism

“He comes to us as One unknown, without a name, as of old,

by the lakeside. He came to those who knew Him not. He

speaks to us the same word: ‘Follow thou me’ and sets us to

the tasks which He has to fulﬁl for our time. He commands.

And to those who obey Him . . . they shall learn in their own

experience Who He is” (Albert Schweitzer).

Buddhism

In 2001 the Dalai Lama stated that “Jesus Christ also lived

previous lives,” and added that “So, you see, he reached a

high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person,

through Buddhist practice or something like that. ”

e singular thread through these various religious quotations

is that individuals ﬁnd in Jesus some kind of transformative

spiritual experience. is allegiance is not just an admiration

for Jesus’ teaching (such as the Sermon on the Mount) but a

personal relationship, an encounter of a spiritual and devo-

tional character. ey can speak of Jesus as their Lord. us,

Pietism felt the rationalistic

expression of faith was neither

transformative nor personal,

but advocated a mystical expression

that would unite all.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Herbert Hoefer 145

We are all familiar with the Pietist hymns that are still in

common usage today, such as “Jesus, Lover of My Soul” ( John

Wesley), “What a Friend We Have in Jesus” ( Joseph Scriven),

and “In the Garden” (Austin Miles). ey call people of all

doctrinal traditions to a uniting love and devotion to Jesus.

e goal of these mystical writers and composers is to call us

into a transformative personal relationship with Jesus. is

Christian mysticism permeates the traditions of the faith

even today, and is the same call we experience in the Jesu

Bhakti poems and songs of Swamy Dayanand Bharati.

Bhakti in the Wisdom Literature of the Bible

Finally, we see that such mystical devotion is a central theme

in the Wisdom literature of the Bible, especially in the Psalms

of lament. is devotion is also expressed in poetic style, in

the Hebrew poetic style of rhyming thoughts:

Psalm 6:2–3

Be gracious to me, O Lord, for I am languishing.

O Lord, heal me, for my bones are troubled.

My soul also is sorely troubled. But ou,

O Lord, how long?

Psalm 10:1

Why dost ou stand afar oﬀ, O Lord?

Why dost ou hide yself in times of trouble?

Psalm 38:8–9

I am utterly spent and crushed; I groan because of the

tumult of my heart.

Lord, all my longing is known to ee; my sighing is

not hidden from ee.

Psalm 42:1–2

As a hart longs for ﬂowing streams, so longs my soul

for ee, O God.

My soul thirsts for God, for the living God. When

shall I come and behold the face of God?

Psalm 130:1

Out of the depths I cry to ee, O Lord. Lord, hear

my voice!

Let thy ears be attentive to the voice of my supplication.

Job 42:4–6

“Hear, and I will speak; I will speak and you declare

to me.

I had heard of ee by the hearing of the ear; but

now my eye sees ee.

erefore, I despise myself and repent in dust and

ashes.”

Song of Songs 2:16, 3:1

My beloved is mine, and I am His. . . . Upon my bed

by night, I sought him whom my heart loves.

Song of Songs 4:10

How sweet is your love, my sister, my bride.

How much better is your love than wine.

Song of Songs 8:6

Set me as a seal upon your heart, as a seal upon

your arms.

We will see this same emotional spiritual devotion in the

Jesu bhakti poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati. ey are a

psalmody for the Jesu Bhaktas of Hindu India.

Jesu Bhakti in the Poetry of Swamy Dayanand

Bharati

Character of Jesu Bhakti

Hindu Character

Swamy Dayanand Bharati is a Hindu sanyasi, highly learned

in Hindu religious and philosophical ways and literature.

As a Jesu Bakhti, he is the author of a book on Hinduism,

Understanding Hinduism.

He has chosen the Hindu path of

bhakti and writes poetry in the Hindu bhakti tradition. e

Encyclopedia Britannica describes this tradition thus:

Bhakti (Sanskrit: “devotion”) in Hinduism is a movement

emphasizing the mutual intense emotional attachment and

love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the god for

the devotee. According to the Bhagavadgita . . . the path of

bhakti, or bhakti-marga, is superior to the two other reli-

gious approaches, the path of knowledge (jnana) and the

path(s) of ritual and good works (karma).

It is evident that this Hindu bhakti tradition is very similar

to the Pietism tradition in the Christian Protestant tradition

and the mystical tradition in Roman Catholicism, as well as

the piety of the Wisdom literature of the Bible. Jesu bhakti

has arisen in Hinduism as it has also in other religions, often

in the form of devotional poetry. Historically, Hindu religious

literature and doctrinal beliefs have been expressed in poetic

formulations, which are easily remembered and digested.

Swamy Bharati is a Hindu whose spirituality is in the bhakti

tradition, which encourages and legitimizes anyone to choose

the deity one is attracted to and trusts. rough a long process

of struggle and searching, the Holy Spirit led Swamy Bharati

to choose Jesus as his personal god and guru in life, his

ishta

deva.

His bhakti poems are addressed to Jesus, though he also

writes occasional poems on non-religious themes. Swamy

Bharati reads many theological books and reﬂects on them

in his poems. To date, he has composed and posted over a

thousand rhyming Tamil poems on his blog with English

translations and explanations (dayanandbharat.in). For the

purpose of this paper, I asked him to select his favorites for

me to reﬂect on theologically. For the most part, I have used

his own English translations.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

146 A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas: Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati (b. 1952)

Swamy Bharati shares that he writes his poems spontaneously,

as events occur in his life or thoughts arise from his readings of

Scripture and theology. To quote from his blog:

Often, I think that I need not give any reason why I write

poems or some articles in the name of “brainstorm.” As I

often say, I write only for my need. . . . Of course, there will be

inconsistencies and contradictions . . . but I often write ac-

cording to the need that comes in a particular situ-

ation . . . Above all, as I too evolve according to

age and understanding, that too is reected

in my poems and writings. (#456)

us, the poetry is not intended to teach

anything. It is on a diﬀerent level and

has a diﬀerent intention than intellec-

tual doctrinal formulations. e poems

are a celebration and reﬂection on life,

life with God in Jesus Christ, his Maha-

Guru. As Swamy Bharati says in poem

#668: “When unable to understand theology,

only bhakti alone provides bliss.”

He has written an entire poem (#802) on this theme, and

some excerpts are below:

ere is no limitation for bhakti, going beyond any

theology.

Bhakti never sees caste and family. . . . It will embrace

whoever comes within it.

If one bows calling herself as a simple one or brags

herself as a learned one, both are the same before it . . .

You called me to be your bhakta, removing all the

discussion about theology and doctrine, removing all

kinds of unnecessary arguments.

Running in the path toward salvation, you enabled

me to run making me as your own.

Ecumenical Character

As commented above, proponents of Protestant Pietism saw

such personal piety as a path to bridge the gap between the

warring factions of post-Reformation Christianity. Adher-

ents to the Reformed, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic tradi-

tions could keep their personal theological beliefs but unite in

devotional piety to their common Lord. is was the case also

with the Hindu bhakti movement.

e origins of this movement are generally attributed to the

seventh century in South India and then it gradually spread

throughout the country. ere was bitter conﬂict between

devotees of Vaishnavism, Saivism, Jainism, and Buddhism;

the bhakti saints sought to unite these warring factions in

a mutual spirit of devotion and love to their chosen deity. In

addition, these poets gathered people of diﬀerent castes and

languages, enabling them to express their spirituality in their

heart language. It was a piety for the general population, free

from Brahmanism and Sanskrit.

Swamy Bharati writes his poetry in his mother tongue of

Tamil. For the sake of his devotees around India, he typically

provides a rough English translation. While the emo-

tional impact of his poems is strongest for those

who share his Tamil culture, the content and

spirit of his poetry are communicated in

the translations.

Denominational theologies can be

highly intellectual and complex, at-

tempting to justify and clarify diﬀer-

ences. Swamy Bharati is not anti-intel-

lectual. To the contrary, he is continually

reading theological materials and searching

for intellectual cogency in his beliefs. How-

ever, he is very clear that doctrinal formulations

are not the heart of his faith. He continually retreats to his

mystical devotion to renew and center his spiritual strength.

e ordinary worshipper can ﬁnd these doctrinal formulations

and arguments quite incomprehensible, distracting, and irrel-

evant. What they want from their faith is encouragement and

strength for their daily journey and hope for their eternal fu-

ture. So, too, does Swamy Bharati, as is reﬂected in his poetry.

As the Pietists said, religion must move beyond intellectual

assent to inner spiritual transformation. Jesu bhaktas can ﬁnd

this transformation in their heart of hearts by participating

in the renewing and recentering mystical devotion of Swamy

Bharati’s poems.

is mystical piety can inspire devotion to Jesus across

Christian denominational lines and unite Christians with the

many Hindu devotees of Jesus. As with the early Hindu bhak-

ti poets, Swamy Bharati’s poetry can unite devotees of Jesus

across gender (he habitually refers to bhaktas with female pro-

nouns), caste, denominational, religious, and linguistic lines.

Putting divisive arguments aside, all can experience God’s love

and express their love together by singing these songs.

Themes of Jesu Bhakti

In many religious traditions, the Supreme Deity is unknowable

and unreachable. e Deity is a great and powerful Being who

is feared and molliﬁed. Not so in bhakti piety. Christian scrip-

tures emphasize that God is love. He loves us, and we are called

to love him in return. He calls us to his embrace.

“When unable

to understand

theology, only bhakti

alone provides bliss.“

(Dayanand Bharati)

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Herbert Hoefer 147

Intimacy

In his poems, Swamy Bharati swims in the ocean of intimacy

with the Divine. e Divine is addressed with the Tamil sec-

ond person singular term used for family members and close

friends. ere is a feeling of warmth and an attitude of trust.

One can be vulnerable and openhearted in this safe environ-

ment. It is a comforting and renewing relationship. Some

quotations from Swamy Bharati’s poems of intimacy:

Poem #962

We remain bound together with deep love

We lost our sense by getting immersed in love…

Who can understand this? If I tell this, they will

mock me…

Let us remain in a relationship which nobody can

understand.

Let us rejoice by living this forever.

Poem #780

Forgetting myself, I get completely lost in you . . .

Silently I get lost in that bliss, transcending body

and words . . .

ere is no place for separation . . .

I will live with you always.

Poem #668

Unending bliss is ﬂowing there

It comes like a river of honey.

When unable to understand theology

Only bhakti alone provides bliss . . .

Once you gave yourself to me, where is any separation

between us? . . .

I become a mad man by enjoying it. . . .

Let us remain there forever, without knowing

separation.

Poem #1296

I understood the special relationship

Which you bestowed exclusively for me . . .

(People) say that God is common to everyone

And even try to prove it to me.

ere is no means for me to communicate to them

What you have done exclusively for me. . . .

One cannot understand it unless it is lived

And experienced in life.

Poem #576

I got some kind of disturbance within me,

And I rushed unto you to share it.

When I come near to you, I forget all about them.

Silently, I bowed at your feet.

When you hugged both my shoulders.

Forgetting myself I fall on your chest.

Closing my eyes as I keep my head on your chest,

Taking me kindly, you hugged me deeply within you.

Poem #459

It might be easy for you to throw me away.

Accepting or rejecting me is your prerogative.

But it is not possible for me to leave, who has no

other refuge

And even if you ask me to leave, that is not

possible for me.

Like a Mother

Female goddesses are very popular in the Hindu bhakti

tradition. It is a natural outgrowth from the sense of inti-

macy between the divine and the devotee. e goddess

has love for all, but for her devotee children she has what in

Tamil is called passam (tender aﬀection.)

In the history of India, in the Indus Valley civilization of

3000



we have statues of goddesses. In the Upanishads, she

is Pakriti, the all-pervasive energy present in all things. In the

Mahabharata this creative force is personiﬁed as Shakti, who

then takes many Devi forms performing all divine powers of

creating, preserving, defending, destroying, and on and on.

In the bhakti tradition, then, female deities like Saraswathi,

Parvati, and Lakshmi, are very popular, performing these

various divine duties.

It is no wonder, then, that the Hindu bhakti of Swamy Bharati

should express this strong Hindu tradition, personifying e

Divine as female, having the same powers and duties as Devi.

Indeed, in the Bible as well, we have such allusions. Consider

Jesus’ famous grieving for the fate of Jerusalem: “How often

would I have gathered your children together as a hen gathers

her brood under her wings” (Matt. 23:37). e prophet Isaiah

found in motherhood the nature of God in his commitment

to his People Israel: “You shall suck, you shall be carried upon

her hip. As one whom his mother comforts, so I will comfort

you” (Isa. 66:12–13).

erefore, with these two strong biblical and Hindu tra-

ditions, it is no surprise that addressing and conceiving of

Female deities are

very popular in bhakti tradition.

It is no wonder that Bharati would

express similar biblical allusions to

the divine as female.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

148 A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas: Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati (b. 1952)

So that I will again get more of your love.

ere is no comparison for this relationship.

It is the right of a bhakta to receive it . . .

Once you come as my mother,

I receive it as your child,

ere is no greater joy other than this on the earth.

Arguing

In an intimate, mother-like relationship, there is security. We

are free to be honest and forthright. Like Jeremiah, we can com-

plain, “You have deceived me, and I was deceived” ( Jer. 20:7).

Like the psalmist, “Why dost though stand afar oﬀ, O Lord?

Why dost thou hide thyself in times of trouble” (Ps. 10:1)? Even

Jesus on the cross cries out, “My God, My God, why has ou

forsaken Me” (Matt. 27:46)? So also is there a mother-child

relationship in Swamy Bharati’s poems, as illustrated below:

Poem #987

ere is no true change within me,

I don’t have the thought to live for you . . .

Even after knowing this, you don’t have concern

for me . . .

I shed tears thinking of my condition.

I longed for when you would touch me.

What is the reason for further delay?

Is it right on your part to leave me alone to suﬀer?

Poem #963

You said that you would not go away from me—at

is your promise

But now you forgot me. at alone is cruel.

On the one side my

atman (soul) is longing for you.

On the other side, my heart is furious toward you.

As I weep with longing, I am completely wet.

But due to the heat of my anger, I become dry . . .

erefore, ask your heart and give answer to me

Poem #961

My melted heart is panting thinking of you.

Tears are ﬂowing like a fountain.

When I am burnt out by living in solitude,

Where has your grace gone, leaving me alone? . . .

Is it right on your part not to dwell in my heart?

Do you not share in my shortcomings?

If I lack in bhakti, is it not a loss for you?

Don’t further delay once you know this.

Don’t forsake my heart anymore.

God as mother is a pervasive theme in the poems of Swamy

Bharati, as illustrated below:

Poem #1367

A mother will make a child to cry

en hugging it the next minutes.

Is not this the heart of a mother?

After that, as the baby becomes upset.

It will kick the mother with much whining.

Can I do that? Can I kick you? . . .

You should take me to pamper, as I am kicking you . . .

Taking and hugging me and comforting me,

You should behave like a mother.

Poem #1312

I become like an infant that does not know its

own need.

But I am in my mother’s two arms,

Even though I am unaware . . .

To the infant that knows only its mother,

ere exists no separate world.

It never ﬁnds separate joy,

As it has relationship with much aﬀection with

mother.

Poem #1267

Like a mother who accepts

e beating of her baby with a smile,

Accepting my scolding as praises,

Is your nature.

Poem #1204

Is there any baby on this earth that does not know

How to change the wrath of its mother?

Whining slightly, the mother will hug it.

Don’t think that I have crossed the age for whining.

Poem #294

Who is there who understood my heart?

Who will listen to me when I share? . . .

Why have you given me this many trials,

O my Lord, I cannot bear any more pain. . . .

But I know your motherly heart.

at alone is my greatest weapon.

If one hand strikes, another will hug,

And I found great joy only in this . . .

I will take refuge in you.

Poem #814 (titled “You Are My Mother”)

My mother, won’t you hug me,

Won’t you take me to your feet? . . .

ough the mother spanks,

e child will fall back on her lap . . .

I grew only seeing your face,

Drinking your grace, I grew in life . . .

But like a child I will cry

In an intimate, mother-like

relationship, there is security. We are

free to be honest and forthright.

We can complain.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Herbert Hoefer 149

My lamentation alone became praises now . . .

inking of your divine grace in my heart,

I should live only seeking you.

I longed only for this kind of life.

I prayed for you to bestow only this life.

I carry that responsibility.

Accepting it, I will complete my duty if you ask me to.

Poem #820

ere is none who can weep for me.

ere is none who will cry with me.

No one understood my condition.

erefore, no one wept for me.

You wept for the world. You also wept for your relatives.

You wept remembering your friend, but you forgot

this dog.

Because already you redeemed me, therefore I got

my comfort.

erefore, I stopped crying.

Poem #389

Let your grace uphold me.

Let your compassion increase.

I come to you seeking mercy. What else can I say? . . .

Don’t I have a place in your kind heart?

Do I need to ask this: Does your heart not melt

for me? . . .

I lament and cry, unable to understand.

is life on earth is a burden

Enough is enough, please take care of me.

Poem #393

I went everywhere searching for him.

I searched for him in so many places all the time.

I don’t know why he has this much interest

In seeing my frustration in seeking him. . . .

People are talking that I am struck with lust.

Not knowing my true love, they talk like that.

ey all spoil my name, joining together,

Not knowing my heart, they are rebuking me.

Let anyone talk whatever they want to talk.

Who is going to come and help me in this?

Unless they know about my true bhakti,

Who else will know the real treatment for my

sickness?

Scripture

Swamy Bharati is highly knowledgeable not only in Christian

theology and in Hindu philosophy, but also in the Holy

Scriptures. He uses the term muktiveda, meaning “salvation

scripture.” He always wants to check if what he is thinking is

in accordance with Holy Writ. e poems are mini-homilies.

Most of Hindu bhakti philosophy is written in the form of

poetry, and Swamy Bharati advocates that it would be good

if Christian theology also were expressed this way. He argues

Poem #956

When soldiers ﬁght, they have a common set of rules

for combat.

ere is a rule that only two equally strong soldiers

should ﬁght with each other.

How many times can I say that I am not ready for

combat with you? . . .

I told you several times that I am not the proper

person for your lila (divine play).

I clearly told you that I don’t have energy to act on

the stage further . . .

But while I perform and faint, you alone should come

to carry me.

Lament

Closely related to the theme of argument in bhakti, is the

theme of lament. Lament is a feeling of frustration and disil-

lusionment. It is exhaustion from futile arguing. Lament is

a huge theme in the Bible where approximately 40% of the

150 psalms are considered psalms of lament. It is a common

theme among the prophets, and there is a whole book of the

Bible called Lamentations.

Lament arises from disappointment. Disappointments arise

because of expectations. Expectations arise because of prom-

ises and relationships. Only in a relationship of love and trust

does a lament arise. Since that is the character of a bhakti

relationship, there will be heartfelt laments when things do

not go as one had hoped and expected.

Because the relationship with the Lord is so ﬁrm and sure,

the laments typically end in an aﬃrmation of trust and hope.

is is true, for example with the psalms of lament in the

Bible. Only six of them do not end with the famous “None-

theless . . .” We see this same pattern in Swamy’s poems. Here

are quotes from some of Swamy Bharati’s poems of lament:

Poem #1293

You alone know the life that I am living.

You alone will bestow the liberation that I seek.

Till that time, O my Lord, give me your grace to have

patience.

e life on earth becomes a burden.

Most of Hindu bhakti philosophy

is written as poetry,

and Bharati advocates that Christian

theology be expressed this way.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

150 A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas: Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati (b. 1952)

Did he remember this?

When the guru came carrying the water

To wash the feet (of the disciples)

“I won’t allow you to do this to me”

Did he remember these words?

“We left everything to follow you

What we will gain” as he asked

“You will receive the eternal life”

Did he remember this promise (by the Lord)

I am also in the same situation

And walk everyday denying you.

Do you have love for me?

As I was asking this, bowing my head silently

And afraid to lift up my face to see Him,

I took refuge at His feet, saying:

“You know that too, O my Lord.”

Poem #379

Getting up before the sun rises

And looking all around with much fear

And rushing to the grave before others could notice

And when they reached the front of the cave

As its mouth remain opened

And they went inside with much hesitation

A man dressed in white dress

Proclaimed that noble news (to them)

“Did you come searching after the Lord?

Who hanged on the Tree?”

Look and see the place where He was kept

And the divine one is already gone . . .

ough they ran without saying anything

What all the things they were thinking in their mind

But when they conveyed the news accordingly

e disciples didn’t believe their words.

Poem #397

In order to show how good is he

And asked the question for others to applaud him

To the one who has a mean mind?

e Lord turned to him and said—go and do. . . .

“Who is your neighbour?

Whom you think is your neighbour

ose who are in need are your neighbours

If you help them they will become your own”—

go and do. . . .

Yet he became very sad

As he has desire over his wealth

ough he received the apt answer to his question

Went away as if he hadn’t heard,

Without giving any response (to the Lord)—

go and do.

Poem #441

Rejecting the good one

And allowing the criminal to escape

In order to preserve his position

that poetry is a form that Hindus appreciate for its artistry

and tradition, and it is easier to memorize. It is similar to the

use of poetic hymns the European Reformers used to teach

the illiterate masses in the sixteenth and seventeenth centu-

ries. Some quotes from a few of these poems:

Poem #310

It is the word which was there from the beginning. . . .

Everything came only through that word . . .

And that showed the light to humanity,

And the darkness can never overcome that light.

. . . that light which alone will enlighten

Everyone who is born on this earth.

Poem #3

I don’t have the aromatic oil on my hand

I don’t have tears also in my eyes

Neither have I the courage or heart

to seek and bow at your feet

One woman got remorse on seeing her condition

She was shocked by the cruel nature of her sin

Taking courage she approached His feet

He bestowed forgiveness on seeing her condition

She was ready to accept the insult by others

And bowed at the feet of the King Muktesan (Saviour)

“Go in peace as I have removed your punishment

Which cannot be removed otherwise,” He said.

Knowing my condition I came at your feet

Won’t you accept me the poor man?

I don’t know any other place of refuge

Save me O Lord of Grace

Poem #20

e Eternal God who pervades everywhere

e Grace who yourself

Out of overﬂowing love for the humanity

Who came as His only son

You lived with the divine Glory and

Why you gave up that divine nature?

You came to this earth in order to redeem

A wretched sinner like me . . .

erefore God lifted you up and

Gave you that Glory

So that the heavenly being, men on earth and those

who dwell below the earth

Will bow before you with humility

Poem #374

When he was sobbing recalling

With heavy burden in his heart

How he lamented confessing all

And how he felt very sad?

“Even if the entire world deny you

I won’t do that

And I will give myself to protect you”

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Herbert Hoefer 151

And auspicious music is all around.

I get ready to receive you.

I prepared the arati

to welcome you.

What is the reason for so much delay?

Are you hesitating to accept this slave?

Every second feels like an eternity.

Alone with my heart, the body also burns.

e love in separation is burning me down . . .

I become frustrated, ﬁlled with tears.

You gave me the promise

at you would deﬁnitely come to redeem me.

I am waiting for you,

Longing for you to come, to accept me.

Enough is enough of this divine play.

Play your pranks somewhere else,

Saving me who suﬀers due to love in separation.

Give me the joy of joining with you.

Poem #961

My melted heart is panting, thinking of you.

Tears are ﬂowing as a fountain

When I am burnt out by living in solitude.

Your grace has gone, abandoning me.

Unfathomable fear has come.

My heart is shivering thinking about it.

It doubts whether you have forgotten me.

It laments that there is no use in living anymore.

I lived so far not knowing separation.

So far I have lived not experiencing separation.

When it ﬁrst came, I completely lost myself. . . .

Not forgetting me, though, you came

And redeemed me out of love till I became com-

pletely yours.

Is it not right on your part to dwell in my heart? . . .

Don’t forsake my heart anymore.

Poem #868

I waited for him with tearful eyes . . .

I fell in love and never realized that he is a thief.

I never knew about separation.

I remembered his promise of non-separation

erefore, when he came and knocked on the door,

I ran with much enthusiasm and opened the door . . .

Before I could tell about his love, he went away.

He made me drown in the pond of my eyes . . .

Did he think that I am not qualiﬁed for him? . . .

e one who bestows grace, receiving anyone, why

did he renounce only me?

But I won’t forget the promise which he gave. I live

only believing it.

e one who promised to come will deﬁnitely come.

He will bestow the opportunity for me to bow at

his feet.

He has done the worst thing

But there is no point in blaming him

at too is the will of God

But as he failed to uphold his justice

He earned a bad name

Did he alone do this

Did he commit that mistake only for others

We too are like that

We too transgress in order to please others.

Viraha-bhakti (Love in Separation)

Viraha-bhakti is an experience peculiar to mystical bhaktas.

In Christian mysticism, a similar experience is called “the

dark night of the soul.” As we have seen in the above poems

of lament, a major source of frustration and confusion is the

yearning of the bhakta for a close experience of the Divine.

Once you have had the joy of this close Divine Presence in

your life, you want it over and over again. It is understandable

to feel this absence deeply when it has been so transforming

and fulﬁlling.

In his explanation for one of these poems, Swamy Bharati

quotes from the

Canto Spiritual of the mystic saint, St. John

of the Cross, to illustrate his feelings:

Where did you hide, my lover,

Leaving me in agony?

You wounded me, and then ﬂed like a deer.

I ran outside after you, crying out,

And you had gone.

Such feelings of separation anxiety are diﬃcult for non-mystic

believers to understand. Most believers are aware that God

is near and cares, but they may never intimately experience

this nearness. One might have a sense of it on a human level

between lovers and parents and children. It is because the rela-

tionship is so close and enriching that it hurts so much to lose

it, even brieﬂy. You savor the memory and yearn for its return.

Here are some examples:

Poem #682

I came seeking your feet.

I can hear the sound of your gentle steps

Like honey in my ears.

I visualize your holy footprints,

Such feelings of separation anxiety

are difcult for non-mystic believers

to understand. . . . it hurts to lose

the nearness, even briey.

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152 A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas: Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati (b. 1952)

Became a fool, even though I have intellect

And became a poor man in my heart.

Without you in my heart, I became empty . . .

Show mercy to this poor man in this life on earth

To become a burning lamp through your eternal Words.

Give your words as the un-quenching lamp to this slave,

Who sought your feet.

Poem #973

What are the ﬁnal answers to everything?

Let people give it to me if possible . . .

ere is no ﬁnal answer for everything

Until God tells it clearly.

ose who realize this will leave it to God

And remain humble.

Poem #954

I cannot bear the burden of sin.

I cannot understand the nature of sin. . . .

When I wandered seeking an answer to this,

You came as the answer to me.

You shed your blood for me on the cross for this . . .

I am unable to bear that burden alone.

I beg you to give mercy and remove it.

Poem #953

As long as I live, my sinful nature,

Which is rooted with me, won’t go from me . . .

As your atonement reminds me again,

I come to you, begging again . . .

I beg for you to give your grace

For me to ﬁght against it till the end

I call upon you to carry me when I stumble, not to

fall again.

When I lie down wounded after a ﬁght,

I call upon you to come and put balm on my wounds.

Healing me again, standing with me by giving company

To struggle again until you take me to the further shore.

Till then, remain as my guru, to show me the way.

I give myself to you, for you to lead me each day.

Poem #456

ere is nothing in my life to parade (before others).

I have nothing to say to the world.

What is there to give others from an empty vessel?

is is not pseudo-humility.

is is the fact which I tell after full realization . . .

On which greatness could I brag

When I don’t have anything.

Even what little I had is gone

Once I understood the Truth

Physically, appearance has disappeared very quickly.

I don’t see any greatness even in my birth (as a Brahmin).

Poem #780

I was waiting for you, remaining awake.

I was looking for your arrival, not even blinking my eyes.

When the time was right, you came and received me.

As my tears were pouring down, you hugged me.

Forgetting myself, I get completely lost in you.

I closed my eyes. My hair stood on end.

I kept both your feet in my heart.

O my God, I was worshipping at your feet.

Silently I was drowned in bliss, transcending body

and words.

I was with you. I lived without needing anything more.

Oﬀering myself, I was bowing at your feet.

But when I woke up, I realized it was all just a dream.

e vision that I had was not true, I realized.

Whether true or not, once you came within my thought,

ere was no more separation, I realized.

Once I had the relationship. there would never be

separation.

erefore, I don’t wait on you anymore.

I will live with you always.

Humility/Submission

ough the bhakti relationship is one of intimacy and trust,

it is a Master-Servant/Disciple relationship. Jesus’ disciples

called him Master. Only he could presume to call them friends

( John 15:15). From the standpoint of the bhakta, it is a rela-

tionship of humility and submission. is is illustrated below.

Poem #425

A mother will have extra concern over a sick child.

As I become good for nothing, you too had this kind

of compassion on me.

ough I don’t know even the word “thanks,”

But like a dog I will stay at your feet,

For the leftovers that you will throw from your table

for me.

Poem #23

Only a burning lamp can light another one, is true in life.

I don’t ﬁnd any use for my learning

Unless my heart with the power of the Spirit

Becomes a burning lamp by receiving light (from you).

Having eyes, I became blind; became deaf having ears

Though the bhakti relationship

is one of intimacy and trust, it is a

Master-Servant relationship, one of

humility and submission.

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Herbert Hoefer 153

I never achieved any greatness in my education,

And what all I learnt never came to any use.

And I never found the things which I searched for.

Now what is there for me to brag in any of them?

I made noise like an empty vessel

And put a mask on all through my life.

Finally, when God came and redeemed me,

I found the true greatness about it.

at greatness is enough for me, and I will take

pride in it.

All other greatness is nothing but rubbish,

And all are mere loss for me.

Worship

Of course, the fundamental relationship of the human to the

Divine is worship. Here are excerpts from Swamy Bharati’s

poems of worship:

Poem #1267

However I sing, my heart won’t ﬁnd fulﬁllment.

I cannot utter your sweet name simply in words.

Like a mad person intoxicated with bhakti,

However much I write (songs), they are not enough for

ough I lament, complaining against you so many

times,

e one time I sing your praises my heart is fulﬁlled.

As you accept both scolding and praising equally,

As I sing about you, I feel joy in my heart.

Poem #11

e embodied Light

Became a Graceful Word,

Incarnate to save this world;

Hail to You!

Remaining primordial God,

You became His gracious Son;

Creator of everything,

You came to this world, Hail to You!

Crossing beyond mind and words,

Becoming the form of Light

and the source of Life,

You are the essence of Grace; Hail to you!

You remain as Grace upon Grace;

You became Light to this world

And showed light in darkness;

Lord Muktinath, Hail to you!

Poem #84

In this calm evening when I sit with my Lord,

As a melodious music surrounds me, I forget

myself.

Birds with their gentle voices praise the Lord,

And my heart too rises up to worship Him.

What other pleasure will I seek in this contra-

dicting world,

Other than sitting at His feet, to gently massage

His feet.

Poem #534

You come to give something to me,

But I don’t know what it is . . .

I cannot reject it as mere emotion.

I didn’t accept it as feeling of my heart.

Yet, there is some kind of bliss, and I am unable to

understand it.

My hair stands up, and tears are coming.

My tongue gets twisted, and my pulse is going down.

And I want to dance. More than that, I experience

some kind of peace

But my tongue hesitates to share. Yet, my heart is

forcing me to do it.

But words are hesitant and unable to share.

What actually happened to me?

Yet, I need to share all this so others might get the

same bliss.

ey should experience this joy in themselves,

And they should drown in this divine bliss.

Poem #1

e day has dawned and birds are singing.

Let us praise the Holy Lord Muktesan.

Sun has risen and the devotees have gathered.

Let us sing a joyful song and glorify Him.

Flowers have blossomed and the world has woken up.

Let us praise the Holy Lord Muktesan.

Temple bell is calling the devotees.

Let us glorify Him by singing joyful song.

e saints are glorifying Him and

e angels are adoring the divine name of the Lord

Muktesan.

Come ye all devotees to bow and serve Him

Who removes all our sorrow and gives holiness.

All the nations glorify Him and the Holy Scriptures

praise Him.

Let us also daily glorify Him, bowing at His holy feet.

I have called my poems “bhakti

theology songs.“ A theologian need

not be a poet, but without bhakti/

faith one cannot do theology.

(Dayanand Bharati)

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

154 A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas: Hindu Jesu Bhakti in the Poems of Swamy Dayanand Bharati (b. 1952)

Conclusion by Swamy Dayanand Bharati

I asked Swamy Bharati to write the conclusion for this article,

as these bhakti poems are his life:

I have called my poems “bhakti theology songs.” A theolo-

gian need not be a poet, but without bhakti/faith one cannot

do theology. Likewise, a bhakti poet inevitably uses theology.

However, she is not bound by abstract, intellectual formula-

tions. She can express her bhakti, which is mainly based on

her personal relationship with Bhagavan (Lord God), using

the medium of poems. I found my solace in the poems as it

gave immense personal freedom and joy to celebrate my re-

lationship with the Lord. Of course, it is a private world and

personal

sadhana (devotion or meditation). Yet, a bhakta

always calls others to join her to celebrate this personal re-

lationship with the Lord.

Another advantage that I have as a Hindu bhakta of the Lord

is to inherit a rich bhakti tradition in India, not keeping it

within the academic discipline of theology. The Hindu tradi-

tion of so many bhakti saints from various sects only added

richness to express my relationship with the Lord through

my poems. Of course, those who are strictly brought up in

“Christian tradition” cannot understand this. As I cannot dis-

own my roots and Hindu tradition, not minding others’ criti-

cism, I with much joy use my own Hindu tradition to express

my bhakti theology.

A special example are my poems of viraha-bhakti (love in

separation). Some followers of the Lord feel uncomfortable

to use such poems; however, my Hindu tradition gave me the

personal freedom to express my bhakti in this genre.

I always thank God that I was born not only in India but

also that I know Tamil as my mother tongue. It is one of

the richest living languages in the world, and its religious

literature was almost always expressed in poetry. I was im-

mensely blessed by that heritage to express my bhakti in the

Lord by writing poems.

So, though I have written poems only for my personal need

and private sadhana, still I am happy to share with others,

requesting every follower of the Lord to use one’s own birth

tradition while celebrating her relationship with the Lord.

I hope this paper will give some small hope for a few to

rethink their personal view about their own birth traditional

values that are a gift from God.

Postscript by Hoefer

I would like to conclude by quoting in full a poem that I think

expresses well the depth of Swamy Bharati’s bhakti:

Poem #24

You are the Mother, you are the Father

You are my Master, You are my Refuge

You are my dear Friend

You are my compassionate Brother

You are the centre of my love

You are the Lord to my soul

Who stole my heart with aﬀection!

I sing unto you in melodious music

With a melting heart and

Emotional spirit with bhakti

e eternal Being

God of God and True Jyothi (light)

e blissful Light

Refuge to the bhaktas

Where can I ﬁnd language?

To praise you

How can I tell you

e longing of this poor man’s spirit?

How can I utter them to you?

Don’t you know my heart?

e Eternal one

God my Master

By cleansing my inner being

With blissful tears and forgetting myself

Like a girl who is

Struck with love

Seeking the face of the beloved

And every day approaching you

I oﬀered myself unto you

Protect me; I took refuge at your golden feet

My heart melts in you

And the hairs stood up at the end

Tears ﬂowing from eyes

Bowing at your feet with folded hands

I come unto you as my refuge

O Mother I am your child

I cannot ﬁnd on this earth

Any other refuge other than your feet.

IJFM

I was immensely blessed by a rich

Tamil heritage to express my bhakti

in the Lord by writing poems.

(Dayanand Bharati)

So we can better serve

you, please give us feed-

back in this short IJFM

Sur vey.

Online, click here for the IJFM Survey.

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Herbert Hoefer 155

Endnotes

Milad Milani, “Representations of Jesus in Islamic Mysticism: Deﬁning the ‘Suﬁ Jesus,’” Literature and Aesthetics v. 21 n. 2, (December

2011): 49 (on web, p. 5).

“Texts from the Kabbalah. . . . highest purpose they serve is external dialectical conﬁrmation of the truths already possessed within

Christian doctrine as the triune character of God, the reality of the Incarnation, and the divinity of Christ as the fulﬁllment of messianic

prophecies.”

Pico della Mirandolo: New Essays, M. V. Dougherty, ed. “ree Precursors to Pico della Mirandolo’s Roman Disputation and the Ques-

tion of Human Nature in the Oratio” (New York, NY: Ohio Dominion University, Cambridge University Press, 2008), 131–32 (cf also,

pp. 156, 163–64, 172).

Steve McSwain, “Jesus: e Original New Age inker” (Beliefnet.com, response to question no. 3).

Albert Schweitzer, e Quest of the Historical Jesus (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 403.

“My attitude toward Jesus Christ is that he was either a fully enlightened being or a bodhisattva of a very high spiritual realization.”His

Holiness the Dalali Lama,

e Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus (Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications, 1996).

e Lutheran Hymnal (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1941), #356 (Johann Scheﬄer, “Jesus, Savior, Come to Me”).

e Lutheran Hymnary (Minneapolis, MN: Austana Publishing House, 1913), #30 (J. A. Freylinghausen, “Who is ere Like ee?”).

e Hymnal (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1982), #386 (Nicholas Von Zinzendorf, “Jesus, Still Lead On”).

Dayanand Bharati, Understanding Hinduism (New Delhi: Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers, 2005), 336 pp.

One important type ofpujain Indian temple and privateworshipisarati, the waving of lighted lamps before an image of a deity or a

person to be honoured (https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja).

A MAGAZINE OF FRONTIER VENTURES

missionfrontiers.org ISSUE 45:2 MAR/APR 2023

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Women in Mission

the quiet majority

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Effective Strategies and Roles

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Cascading Gospel:

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A Fresh Look at Contextualization

Positive cross-cultural communication is an essential skill when sharing the gospel. Unfortunately, many common Western

biblical constructs create stumbling blocks for people of di erent backgrounds, causing them to reject the gospel. But that

doesn’t have to be the case.

Join Dr. Mary Lou Codman-Wilson and Dr. Alex Zhou as they dialogue about Alex’s experience becoming a believer in the US

and his struggle to share his faith when he returned

to China. They model a process of examining

our cultural worldview to overcome the tensions

associated with living out our faith in a context

dominated by di erent religious or secular systems.

Supracultural Gospel presents: seven principles to

adapt the gospel to bridge East and West; essential

attitudes and practices of emotional healthy and

spiritually discerning discipleship; and key gospel

concepts in non-Western terms, while retaining

biblical accuracy.

Written in a highly conversational tone and

validated with personal stories from many Asian

internationals, Supracultural Gospel is a powerful

and practical tool for those who are passionate

about cross-cultural discipleship. Are you ready

to unpack your worldview and embrace a

supracultural gospel?

ISBN: 978-1-64508-272-9

224 Page paperback

$15.99, ebook $9.99

Mary Lou Codman-Wilson

(Author)

with Alex (Qin) Zhou

Sup cultu lSup cultu lSup cultu l

GospelGospelGospel

Positive cross-cultural communication is an essential skill when sharing the gospel.

Unfortunately, many common Western biblical constructs create stumbling blocks for

people of di erent backgrounds, causing them to reject the gospel. But that doesn’t have

to be the case.

158 Books and Missiology

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

Missiology

the prosperity gospel (), whereas the Chinese boxes include

persecution, cultural resistance, viewing Christianity as an

outsider religion, the prosperity gospel, and collectivism/real-

ism (–). Interestingly, Zhou includes boxes from within

the Chinese church as well as the broader Chinese culture.

Within the Chinese church:

Church members-both new converts and longtime believers

continue to draw parallels between commercial wealth and

Christian faith . . . . among Christians in rural China, a major

reason for people to convert to Christianity is the benet of

being healed and protected by Jesus. The claim that belief in

Jesus can cure illness is a popular one and has a deep root in

rural believers’ hearts. Yet some rural believers practice their

realistic faith in an unrealistic way. They refuse to take medi-

cal treatments for illness and pray instead for God’s healing.

Such rural believers came to faith when their illnesses were

healed after praying, but they would also question God if the

illnesses lasted longer. (32, 33–34)

us, Zhou’s criticism is equally leveled at tension points within

the broader Chinese culture as well as the Chinese church.

e Japanese and ai boxes include

wa (the value of harmony

or living together without tension),

jyoushiki (adhering to the

common sense or assumed standard),

gimu (obligation to

reciprocate received kindnesses), and more generally the dom-

inance of Asian values that aﬀect Christian witness (–).

For the Thai, harmony is a key issue particularly when there are

signicant relationships between Christians and Buddhists. All

the Thai informants in the research expressed the concern that

dialogical discussion would cause arguments and break rela-

tionships. This same issue is dominant in Japan. (38–39)

One wonders here if the gospel is being adequately commu-

nicated to ai and Japanese people, since these boxes strike

most readers as rather positive. Perhaps there is need for fur-

ther exploration on how dialogue is conducted in Japanese and

ai contexts, especially amidst diﬀerences. Among the rea-

sons for relational tension quoted in the text are philosophical

diﬀerences, religious diﬀerences, inability to converse, inabil-

ity to participate in traditions and practices, and inability to

carry on family traditions (–). ese are indeed weightier

matters in Asian cultures as they involve connection to the

family, community, and culture and can unintentionally com-

municate one’s desire to leave the family, culture, community,

and relationships behind due to religious and philosophical

commitments.

Supracultural Gospel: Bridging East and West, by Mary

Lou Codman-Wilson with Alex (Qin) Zhou (Littleton,

CO: William Carey Publishing, 2022), x + 224 pp.

—Reviewed by Andy Bettencourt

oday the missiological spotlight

has fallen on the drama of global

migrations, with over 200 million

people displaced and in transition from

their homelands. is phenomenon is

often referenced as one grand homoge-

nous narrative, but we’re all quite aware

that the individual stories, the trauma,

the wrenching displacement of lives

represent very diﬀerent experiences. We can persist in believ-

ing this broad and varied demographic shares a common vul-

nerability to the claims of the gospel—but, again, isn’t this

a rather dubious assumption of homogeneity. Perhaps truer

is that in every migratory narrative the gospel will have to

bridge the two worlds of this diaspora. In the recent book

Supracultural Gospel, the authors Codman-Wilson and Zhou

want to focus our attention on how one can bridge the gospel

in one particular diaspora between East and West.

While some readers may question the exact focus of this text

and its primary audience, it’s clear that the

Supracultural Gospel

attempts to enable Asian internationals and immigrants to

thrive in their Christian life back in their home country (). e

authors also hope to “provide helpful contextual tools for those

who reach out to and disciple Asian internationals while they are

in the West” (). In both cases, the authors want to explore how

to think outside the box of the gospel in the West and East, and

they propose a supracultural gospel that can be contextually suit-

able in both cultures (). is goal is admirable, and a handful

of Western and Eastern authors are enlisted into a conversation

about how to communicate the gospel in both contexts.

e authors ﬁrst compare the Western “boxes” of the gospel

with Eastern “boxes,” both of which restrict the gospel (–).

e four major Western boxes include Western captivity of

the gospel, individualism/materialism, “Christianity Lite,” and

Books

and

Andy Bettencourt (MDiv, Fuller Seminary) serves in the Winter Launch Lab (https://www.winterlaunchlab.org/) and works alongside

workers, agencies and networks in discerning innovative ways forward on the frontiers of mission. He is passionate about interfaith

dialogue and a mutually enriching discipleship that unpacks each person’s identity and life experience alongside the Scriptures.

Books and Missiology 159

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

e authors are challenged by the width of their categories

and the limited space to dialogue across these cultures. For

instance, the prosperity gospel shows up as a challenge in both

the Western and Chinese boxes. Also, combining collectivism/

realism and individualism/materialism without delving into

the uniqueness of these terms seems inadequate. In general, the

approach of cultural boxes also commits a common Western

mistake of essentializing and categorizing elements of culture

rather than presenting them as embodied and interconnected

aspects of a given culture. ese are helpful values to discuss,

but their limited presentation and framing as boxes prevents

the deep engagement needed to make sense of another culture

and adequately proclaim the gospel in that context.

Part three of the book attempts to explain the core of the supra-

cultural gospel (). Salvation’s unconditional love is centered

through the cross, God’s care for his people, and a transformed

life (–). e authors then attempt to reframe sin by focus-

ing on Jesus’s own shame before and during his cruciﬁxion

(–). e authors acknowledge the diﬃculty of communi-

cating the concept of grace, so they instead use brokenness,

honor, and restoration as lenses for understanding grace in an

Asian context (–). e authors note that all those who

come to faith in Christ need to live out their Christian lives

connected to Christ’s body, and that believers need to ask for

God’s help and possibly even start a small group if they cannot

ﬁnd a fellowship to join (, ). Followers of Jesus are then

called to live out God’s mission in the world out of obedi-

ence, the reality of people’s lostness, a sense of integrity, and

for God’s glory (–).

ere is much to unpack from this supracultural representation

of the gospel. e authors toggle between contributors from

the West and Eastern thinkers as well as Asian interviewees.

At points, Western resources predominate, especially in the

Holy Spirit chapter, but these six essential aspects of the gospel

do a decent job of communicating elements of the Christian

faith. However, they require further unpacking in larger theo-

logical and missiological works as well as engagement from

a primarily Eastern perspective. is work does a ﬁne job in

attempting to produce a resource for Western spiritual leaders

that dialogues with Asian immigrants and international stu-

dents; however, it ultimately is challenged in trying to speak to

multiple audiences and contexts while covering a wide breadth

of material.

Part four addresses discipleship essentials that undergird thinking

outside the box, which includes a Christian mind, ﬁve essential

attitudes, Christ’s lordship, internalizing God’s word, powerful

prayer, and eﬀective spiritual warfare (–). ese discipleship

essentials are introduced in a manner that is helpful for beginning

dialogues. However, unpacking each of them in detail requires

further explanation, but that is not the intent of these authors. It

is particularly important to ground the spiritual warfare conversa-

tions in speciﬁc contexts so that the ideas presented are not mis-

understood. is is likely why the questions for disciplers focus

on the experiences of disciples, the realities of their world, how

the discipler is counseling them, and practical ways for practicing

the given methods (). Much nuance is needed here, as spiritual

warfare has often clouded conversations around one’s cultural and

religious experiences.

e last section of the book contains practical examples of living

outside the box (). e ﬁrst of these ﬁnal chapters focuses on

a few metaphors for transformation as well as transformation in

familial relationships, approaching cultural traditions, and how

one relates to one’s own children (–). e last chapter of this

section and the book re-roots the gospel in Japan by helping the

reader to learn how to witness in more nontraditional ways. ese

might include witnessing through Japanese testimonies, pray-

ing for family members, the modeling of love through service,

striving for peace and holiness, helping others to see God’s pain,

and lastly, through counsel on how to remain faithful disciple-

makers (–). If I were to encourage anyone to read one sec-

tion of this book, it would be this one. e content and examples

are solid. e experiences of Asian believers are highlighted

alongside excerpts and quotations from the writing and state-

ments of Asian teachers, pastors, missionaries, and theologians.

is allows one to experience and appreciate the diﬀerences

and challenges of faith in Christ lived out in an Asian context.

Although the sections on transforming familial relationships

and ancestor veneration are brief, they present enough informa-

tion for those conversations to begin.

Now for the title: the word “supracultural” is complicated.

While scholars debate the essential meaning of culture, it’s clear

that culture isn’t simply a “thing” but describes diﬀerent pat-

terns, practices, and experiences that form and inform groups

and individuals. Culture is how we live as individuals and com-

munities and how we make sense of the world. e gospel, on

the other hand, is good news and will be embraced by people

who wish to follow Christ throughout the world (). us, the

The authors acknowledge the difculty

of communicating the concept of

grace, so instead they use brokenness,

honor, and restoration as lenses for

understanding grace in an Asian context.

160 Books and Missiology

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

South Asia’s Christians: Between Hindu and Muslim,

by Chandra Mallampalli (Oxford University Press,

2023), xvi + 351 pp.

—Reviewed by H. L. Richard

outh Asian society deﬁes simplistic

analysis. us, presenting an over-

view that gets the nuances right is a rare

achievement. is book is an impressive

example of success in this area, despite

its focus being on the somewhat narrow

world of Christianity in South Asia.

(But the subtitle of “between Hindu and

Muslim” makes clear that there can be

no valid study of South Asian Christianity that does not deal

with the overshadowing Hindu and Muslim presences.)

Mallampalli surveys the historical development of South Asian

Christianity with a decided focus on current issues, as is ﬁtting

in a book in the series “Oxford Studies in World Christianity.”

His introduction provides a number of the careful nuances

which make the book so valuable. In the Christian encounter

with South Asia, Mallampalli sees three major aspects of inter-

action; knowledge production, debate, and conversion (). e

latter two are more easily recognizable, but missionary contri-

butions to understanding life and thought in India should not

be underestimated, despite Mallampalli’s wise observation that

missionary debate and learned engagement with “other reli-

gions” (quotation marks as used by Mallampalli) had nothing

to do with the conversion of the Dalit and tribal peoples. “e

unmanageability of Dalit converts and their identities not only

places them

between Hindu and Muslim but also at the margins

of organized Christianity in South Asia” (, italics original).

Indian Christianity is vital for understanding India since Christians

were “both catalysts of nationalism and the ‘other’ of nationalism”

(). Christian education especially stirred nationalist thought and

action, but a Christian “vision that began with universal claims

and transformative aspirations triggered anticolonial nationalisms

that portrayed Christians as foreigners” (). Mallampalli suggests

that “as cricket originated in England and eventually became a

genuinely South Asian sport, Christianity underwent a similar

transformation through which it became a genuinely South Asian

religion” (). Yet Mallampalli also warns not to “overlook instances

where Christians have asserted clearer religious boundaries and

have developed a distinctive consciousness through revival move-

ments, theology, or exposure to global Christian networks” ().

good news should be communicated to individuals and groups

in a manner that can be culturally understood, embraced, and

lived out. However, the author’s phrasing is confusing regard-

ing this matter. Although the gospel is to be communicated

cross-culturally and into diﬀerent cultures, it must be nuanced,

discussed, and lived out in speciﬁc understandable ways. e

authors’ attempt to speak to both Western and Asian cultures at

the same time leaves their message unclear. A decisive question

to ask here is if the book is primarily for a Western or an Eastern

audience? e authors note that the goal of this resource is ﬁrst

and foremost to enable Asian internationals and immigrants to

thrive in their Christian lives back in their home countries ().

However, the content seems to prioritize a Western audience,

which is not wrong, but should be made clear by these authors.

Otherwise, it may not be experienced as good news. e authors

attempt to bring Western and Eastern ideas together, to facili-

tate dialogue and conversations that include both; however, the

title of their book confuses its purposes. Ultimately, this is a ﬁne

resource for Western Christians hoping to engage with Eastern

Christians or seekers, but to say that this book is primarily

for Easterners is to ignore its Western slant and emphasis on

Western resources and categories.

is book begins some signiﬁcant conversations, but it ultimately

serves missions best when put into the hands of faithful minis-

ters who wish to come alongside Asian immigrants and students

and are curious to learn more about Eastern cultures and ways

of life. It’s hard for a Western reviewer to comment on how a

book might be received by those from other cultures; however,

I’d imagine that Asian readers of this book might have diﬃculties

with some of its sections, unless they were able to have conversa-

tions with a Westerner. To put it simply, this book starts a decent

dialogue between Western and Eastern cultures, but by no means

ﬁnishes that dialogue or clariﬁes important details. One can hope

for more books like it that would press further into the nuances

of Western and Eastern cultures, the concept of sin, spiritual war-

fare, and living out one’s faith in Asian contexts.

The authors note that their goal

is to enable Asian internationals

and immigrants to thrive

in their Christian lives back in

their home countries.

H. L. Richard is an independent researcher focused on the Hindu-Christian encounter. He has published numerous books and articles includ-

ing studies of key ﬁgures like Narayan Vaman Tilak (Following Jesus in the Hindu Context, Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1998) and

Kalagara Subba Rao (Exploring the Depths of the Mystery of Christ, Bangalore: Centre for Contemporary Christianity, 2005).

Books and Missiology 161

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

e historical survey of Indian Christianity predictably starts

with chapters on the St. omas churches and then the Jesuit

mission to Akbar. Mallampalli provides an excellent overview

of the traditions (and texts) related to the Apostle omas in

India, perhaps the best place to start investigating these sto-

ries. Mallampalli grants the possibility that omas was in

India, and even the possibility that some early converts were

Brahmans, but if that was the case “they were Brahmins who

lacked the social capital they would enjoy later” ().

From , Jesuit missionaries began a series of visits to the court

of Akbar who welcomed and interacted with them for complex

political and spiritual reasons. In the end, Jesuit dreams of con-

verting the emperor (and thus the entire kingdom) were revealed

as empty. Mallampalli compares this failure with the four-centu-

ries-later failure of Christians to understand Mahatma Gandhi’s

similar surface openness to Christianity which was also under-

girded by an adamantine embrace of pluralistic universalism.

In his third chapter, Mallampalli takes on the complex

historical heritages of Francis Xavier and Robert de Nobili

under the broader rubric of cultural accommodation. e tur-

moil surrounding these issues has not yet stilled; Mallampalli

insightfully suggests that “In key respects, the Jesuits appear to

have made a virtue out of what would be a natural tendency

toward cultural accommodation in regions beyond the reach of

Goa” (). It is not possible to prevent all accommodation (or

syncretism) so one must beware of being too concerned about

these matters. Mallampalli also helpfully highlights a tension

between foreign priest and local agent:

Priests faced a constant irony: Catechists made the difcult

task of cross-cultural evangelism possible while at the same

time contributing to the priests’ sense of vulnerability and

resentment. (82)

Foreign missionaries have never been as eﬀective as local

workers, and the fact that this simple and obvious truth is not

yet widely understood reveals missionary insistence on keep-

ing themselves in the center of the story.

e complex relationship between Christianity and European

colonialism (chapter four) raises a simple question, which

Mallampalli proceeds to answer:

How exactly did a religion that spread within a context of war

capitalism become translated into one that was genuinely

owned by Indians? Despite the history of European exploita-

tion, violence, and racism, Indians became Christian. They did

so not by accepting every cultural or political assumption of

their European rulers, but by embracing a faith that was trans-

lated into their own language and experience. (110)

“e argumentative Protestant” is a ﬁtting title for the ﬁfth

chapter, and Protestant argumentativeness continues to be

a stumbling block to this day. An extensive quotation from

the pro-Western Muslim reformer Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

strikingly makes the point:

The missionaries introduced a new system of preaching. They

took to printing and circulating controversial tracts, in the

shape of questions and answers. Men of a different faith were

spoken of in those in a most offensive and irritating way. In

Hindustan these things have always been managed very dif-

ferently. Every man in this country, preaches and explains his

views in his own Mosque, or his own house. . . . But the Mis-

sionaries’ plan was exactly the opposite. They used to attend

places of public resort . . . to begin preaching there. It was only

from fear of authorities that no one bids them off . . . And then

the missionaries did not conne themselves to explaining the

doctrines of their own books. In violent and unmeasured lan-

guage they attacked the followers and holy places of other

creeds. (135, from The Causes of the Indian Revolt, 1873, 18)

is is not merely a historical embarrassment but a crucial

factor for understanding current “religious” realities. As

Mallampalli states, “Relentless public criticism of the beliefs

of others mobilizes opposition funding, counter-propaganda,

and new patrons of opposing agendas” (). Something

like a Protestantization of other faith traditions results, and

unsympathetic analysis (Mallampalli singles out Samuel

Huntington’s

e Clash of Civilizations as an example of

oﬀense in this area) “de-historicizes diﬀerence and presumes

uniformity where it does not exist” ().

Mallampalli appropriately focuses his sixth chapter on “Upper

Caste Converts to Protestantism” before shifting the focus (also

appropriately) of his concluding four chapters to the establish-

ment of Protestantism as a religion of the poor and oppressed in

India. In a book that is remarkably free from error, there are two

minor slips in dealing with forward caste converts. On page 

discussing Narayan Vaman Tilak, Mallampalli references his

friendship with missionary Justin Abbott who “had produced”

volumes on the Poet-Saints of Maharashtra; but those volumes

post-dated Tilak’s life, so the phrase here should be “who would

go on to produce.” Similarly, on page  Mallampalli quotes

Frykenberg on Pandita Ramabai’s shift to a focus on “

bhakti,

or personal devotion to God expressed with great emotion,” but

this is dated too early, tied to “America’s populist Christianity”

during Ramabai’s s USA visit, when in fact that emphasis

developed later related to crises in India in the s.

Protestant argumentativeness

continues to be a stumbling

block to this day.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

162

Books and Missiology

Endnotes

See my IJFM review at https://ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/27_2_

PDFs/27_2%20Book%20Reviews.pdf.

Mallampalli goes from south to northeast to northwest India

in documenting “Mass Conversion among Dalits and Tribals”

in chapter seven. Like the stories in chapter six, this is stimu-

lating reading with many nuances which explode our tenden-

cies to develop simplistic talking points.

On the contrary, missionaries were often overwhelmed by the

eagerness and scale with which Dalits and tribals sought bap-

tism. Native evangelists and catechists bore the brunt of the

burden as they assisted with Bible translation, propagated the

faith, and provided Christian instruction for new converts. (188)

Chapter eight looks at “Nationalist Politics and the Minoritization

of Christians,” a topic on which Mallampalli has previously pub-

lished

(Christians and Public Life in Colonial South India, –

: Contending with Marginality,

New York: RoutledgeCurzon,

).

Western colonial frameworks distorted reality, and

“decolonization in South Asia consolidated notions of nation-

hood that were built around Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist

identities” (). is dynamic, as quoted above, “de-historicizes

diﬀerence and presumes uniformity where it does not exist” ().

Chapter nine gives an insightful and nuanced approach to “Dalits

and Social Liberation,” although I feel there may be some mea-

sure of special pleading for the missionary approach. In a section

on “Multiple Identities,” Mallampalli points out that:

Converts moved constantly between the domains of village

life and those of the Church. As they did so, they negotiated

their original identities with their new Protestant selves. Mis-

sionaries may have aspired to see converts make a clean break

from their past, but this would have required them to provide

those converts with an entirely new source of livelihood and

an alternative social existence, removed from village life. As

noted above, they neither aspired to nor were able to achieve

such ends among their mass converts, who were compelled to

maintain dual participation and dual identities. (228)

is seems to understate missionary commitment to remake

Indian society. e consistent critique of caste (a topic only cur-

sorily touched on by Mallampalli) was self-described by mis-

sionaries as an attack on the foundation of Hindu society. True,

the mass movements made it impossible to extract converts into

a new civilizational set-up, but the missionary attack on caste

was not lessened and aimed at uprooting traditional Indian

society (as also with many Christian attacks on caste today).

Christian appeals for the Indian government to provide aﬃrmative

action programs for Dalit Christians is one of the complex topics

addressed. at conversion to Christianity disqualiﬁes a Dalit

from government aid is seen by many Indian Christians as blatant

injustice. But Mallampalli points out three assumptions behind

the  Constitutional Order that established this system: “. . .

the casteless-ness of Christianity; its transformative impact on

the lives of converts; and its capacity to bring foreign resources

to bear upon the plight of India’s untouchables” (235).

What of those points can be denied without bringing shame

to Christianity and its teachings and practice? Yet a  gov-

ernment appointed Mishra Commission stated bluntly that

Their [persons of Scheduled Caste origin converted to Christi-

anity] position both in the Church as well as amongst fellow

Christians is no better than that suffered by their counter-

parts in other religious denominations. (237)

A ﬁnal chapter looks at “Pentecostalism, Conversion and Violence

in India.” Pentecostalism is the most dynamic and expansive vari-

ety of Christianity in India today, as well as being the branch of

Christianity most likely to continue the older missionary tradi-

tion of attacking other faiths. Mallampalli suggests that:

It is one thing to say that Pentecostals are attacked in India

because they attack other faiths. It is perhaps more accurate

to say that Pentecostals are attacked because they attract.

(242, italics original)

Mallampalli points out that “Pentecostalism and Hindutva are

clearly at odds with each other; and yet they appear to draw

from a common set of tools arising from globalization” ().

e rise of Pentecostalism does not have a simple explanation.

The emergence of Pentecostalism in Kerala and in South Asia

as a whole involves many variables, sometimes in tension with

each other. These include the role of overseas patrons, the quest

for local autonomy, enterprising and visionary leadership by In-

dians, and interpersonal conicts and church splits that created

new churches. Out of this complex array of factors, Pentecostal

and independent churches multiplied throughout South Asia and

became the force in World Christianity that they are today. (248)

e Pentecostal vision is strikingly at odds with that of liberation

theology, and Mallampalli’s perspective in this matter is insightful:

Some contend that Pentecostalism has had a greater impact on

the poor than liberation theology, despite the strong empha-

sis of the latter in Catholic and Protestant seminaries in South

Asia. Although its message is not oriented to matters of social

justice, Pentecostalism has had an impact on self-worth, em-

powerment, and dignity for the poor. In this respect, the aims of

Pentecostalism intersect with those of liberation theology. (251)

Mallampalli has some concern with the approach of Chad

Bauman to anti-Pentecostal violence in India today.

His [Bauman’s] analysis appears to walk a ne line between

portraying Pentecostals as victims of unlawful violence while

also identifying them as bringing the violence upon them-

selves through triumphalist rhetoric and practices. (255)

Mallampalli wisely refrains from projecting the future of India

or of South Asian Christianity. But clearly his account sets the

stage for many more dynamic chapters ahead in the saga of

gospel encounters with the complex peoples of South Asia.

Books and Missiology 163

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

Andy Bettencourt (MDiv, Fuller Seminary) serves in the Winter Launch Lab (https://www.winterlaunchlab.org/) and works alongside

workers, agencies and networks in discerning innovative ways forward on the frontiers of mission. He is passionate about interfaith

dialogue and a mutually enriching discipleship that unpacks each person’s identity and life experience alongside the Scriptures.

Insider Church: Ekklesia and the Insider Paradigm, by

S. T. Antonio (Littleton, CO: William Carey Publishing,

2020), xxiii + 211 pp.

—Reviewed by Andy Bettencourt

n Insider Church, S. T. Antonio

takes a fresh look at the nature of

the church in Scripture and tradition

and brings it into a missiological con-

versation with the insider paradigm

(xxii). Antonio’s aim is to deepen a

vision of the church that would invite

Muslims to join the number of the

redeemed (xxiii). His book is a sub-

stantial resource for ecclesiology that engages deeply with the

scholarly work of alongsiders and their reﬂections on insider

movements.

He traces the church’s identity through the Old Testament

people of God, Jesus’ kingdom family, Pentecost, the apostles’

teaching, and the Bride of Christ in the New Jerusalem ().

Antonio highlights that this ekklesia has a unique redemptive

relationship to the triune God, that it is a global, multiethnic

family that gathers locally, and that it is an observable fellow-

ship that partially reveals the New Jerusalem. He also views

the church as one holy, catholic, and apostolic community that

abides in the Word, that celebrates the sacraments of baptism

and communion, and which is an important instrument for sal-

vation and spiritual formation. He concludes that this ekklesia

has an apostolic mission to bring the nations under the reign of

King Jesus and into his kingdom community (–). In such

an ecclesiology the desirable goal is a legitimate indigeneity/

inculturation/contextualization, and the undesirable outcome

is a total indigeneity/culturalism/syncretism ().

Antonio argues that faith in Christ not only brings us into the

global body of Christ but also gives us an alternative history

(). However, the insider paradigm envisions the church as

embedded within the world:

The relationship between the church and the world is a

critical facet of the insider model of the church. While ac-

knowledging the presence of the kingdom of darkness in the

world and the need for God’s transforming work, the insider

paradigm emphasizes the positive value of social and cultural

structures and religious structures as either established by

God or as spheres within which God is present and at work.

The insider church is envisioned as a community embedded

within the social, cultural, and religious structures as yeast in

the dough, a change agent which spreads the transformation

of the kingdom and God’s new creation within these struc-

tures without rejecting them or separating from them. (121)

Antonio concludes that the insider paradigm converges

with the biblical vision at some points and departs from it

at others (). He neither condemns the insider paradigm

nor completely aﬃrms it; instead, he evaluates its strengths

and weaknesses with an eye towards the further multiplication

of biblical churches among Muslims (). He notes that the

insider paradigm oﬀers a model which unleashes the yeast of

the kingdom while opening the door to another yeast that may

also leaven the pure biblical nature of the church ().

e author concludes with questions. He interrogates the larger

goals of the insider paradigm and whether remaining inside

one’s community of birth promotes spiritual maturity. He also

questions whether groups of believers can fully express dynamic

visions of the biblical church while retaining signiﬁcant con-

nections to Muslim religious identity (–). Antonio’s chief

concern is that believers of Muslim background may become

indistinguishable from their Muslim community and fail to

express the uniqueness of Christ and his kingdom ().

It is intriguing that none of Antonio’s eight principles directly

attend to the stated longing to see Muslim-background fel-

lowships remain in their communities or oﬀer guidance to

believers in navigating their Muslim contexts (–). His

principles oﬀer rich biblical imagery and solid contributions

to ecclesial tradition, but one may wonder about their con-

textual depth and any potential for shaping a sociocultural

engagement with Muslim peoples.

While I highly recommend it for increasing one’s understanding

of insider missiology and ecclesiology, I wonder how it would

interact with Kevin Higgins’ most recent work and perspective

on Insiders and Alongsiders: An Invitation to the Conversation.

Higgins notes that the deepest markers of an insider movement

are not the questions about socioreligious decisions themselves,

His book is a substantial

resource for ecclesiology that engages

deeply with the scholarly work of

alongsiders and their reections on

insider movements.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

164

Books and Missiology

rather they concern other questions: Who makes decisions in the

movement? How do they make those decisions? Why do they make

them?

Higgins’ model highlights deep engagement with indi-

geneity, where the insiders themselves make decisions through

the use of Scripture, ongoing dialogue, and perhaps an along-

sider’s presence.

Higgins also addresses the eventual socioreligious place of

insider movements. He approaches the ongoing shape of

insider movements rather open-handedly by presenting a

range of possibilities, at least these three are future faithful

directions for insider movements: () critical mass and then

separation as “Christians”; () “yeast in the dough” (i.e., move-

ment leaders believe that faithful discipleship involves bibli-

cally shaped adherence to Jesus within their birth religion);

() “wheat and tares” (i.e., movement leaders believe they will

eventually experience overt, consistent persecution or that

fellow adherents to their birth religion will declare them her-

etics).

Jesus speaks to the latter in John’s gospel:

I have said all these things to you to keep you from falling

away. They will put you out of the synagogues. Indeed, the

hour is coming when whoever kills you will think he is of-

fering service to God. And they will do these things because

they have not known the Father, nor me. But I have said these

things to you, that when their hour comes you may remember

that I told them to you. (John 16:1–4)

One should note that Higgin’s publication emerged after

Antonio’s book,

so it may contain ideas about ecclesiol-

ogy and insider movements of which Antonio was unaware.

Nevertheless, Higgins engages and presses beyond the “yeast

in the dough” ecclesiology that Antonio primarily used to

characterize insider movements.

From the perspective of insider advocates, Antonio’s attempt

to assess the insider paradigm as a viable tool or strategy (,

, , ), is lacking and by necessity will require a process

worked out by those within these movements.

us, viewing

insider movements simply as a strategy is a rather poor concep-

tualization, because insider movements centrally focus on the

decisions, reﬂections, and conversations of either the group or

movement in question. ose within these movements dialogue

and reﬂect over the Scriptures and come to various decisions

regarding life, faith, and practice over diﬀerent periods of time.

is matter of time is an ongoing question, one that involves the

duration required for these movements to continue to grow and

develop. One might say until the return of Jesus, but Antonio’s

ecclesiological model acknowledges the need to see continual

fruit and ongoing maturity in their life together.

Antonio’s ecclesiological model provides a helpful conversation

partner for any group wishing to discern just how believers

may remain committed to following Jesus and bear witness to

his kingdom in their context. e insider paradigm, however,

oﬀers fruitful questions about the roles people should play in

a new movement and who ought to be the decision-makers.

And any reﬂection on how insiders distinctively bear witness

to Christ presses against Antonio’s suspicion that insiders may

remain too similar to the people of their culture. However,

other inherent challenges remain. ere is the matter of overt

persecution. ere is also the barrier of deeply understanding

another culture. It is hard for outsiders to understand when

and how actions may challenge another’s culture or resonate

with it, to have that ability to assess the degree of this impo-

sition. ere’s also the challenge of interpreting the biblical

text, whether head coverings’ passages, passages interacting

with the lives of women, or Jesus’s own discussions regarding

political powers and religious authorities.

Nevertheless, Antonio has given missiologists, church leaders,

and movement leaders a thoughtful engagement of the ekkle-

sia in both Scripture and tradition that will be helpful to

reﬂect upon as movements grow. He also shows an interest in

deeply engaging the thoughts and ideas of others, even those

who may have diﬀerent understandings of insider movements

and the ekklesia of Jesus Christ. He should be commended for

setting up this conversation as a dialogue that can challenge

multiple sides rather than taking expressed aim at one group.

is type of dialogical engagement is refreshing, nurturing,

and invites further conversation. One would hope that more

authors would assume this disposition, so that the church can

experience a healthier dialogue seasoned by encouragement

and thoughtful critique.

IJFM

The deepest markers of an insider

movement are the questions: Who

makes decisions in the movement? How

do they make those decisions? Why do

they make them? (Kevin Higgins)

Endnotes

Kevin Higgins, Insiders and Alongsiders: An Invitation to the Con-

versation

(Littleton, CO: William Carey Publishers, 2021), 15–22.

Higgins, Insiders and Alongsiders, 19.

Higgins, 37–43.

Higgins, 53–58.

Insiders and Alongsiders was published in 2021 whereas Insider

Church

was published in 2020.

Higgins, 19.

Higgins, 37–43.

In Others’ Words 165

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022



In Others’ Words

Editor’s Note: In this department, we highlight resources outside of

the IJFM: other journals, print resources, DVDs, websites, blogs,

videos, etc. Standard disclaimers on content apply. Due to the

length of many web addresses, we sometimes give just the title of

the resource, the main web address, or a suggested search phrase.

this ignorance in Asia in his article “Patron–client Dynamics

between Korean missionaries and Cambodian Christians.”

(Asian Missions Advance # 48 (July 2015: [12–19]). Oh writes,

“In many cases, Westerners who believe in the equality of per-

sons and the virtues of independence in their culture are not

prepared to understand the intricate rules and expectations

of Patron–client relationships. They are not conscious of their

expected role as patrons.” In other words, they swim unaware

of the water.

In the worthy pursuit of partnership, a serious problem

emerges out of this ignorance of cultural “water.” Denying

the existence of the power inherent in wealth, race, educa-

tion, and even citizenship removes the possibility of trans-

formation and redemption. The historical effort to develop

authentic and equal partnership in mission may have missed

how the Majority World handles power imbalance across

relationships.

To Be Thai is to Be Buddhist

Of interest in this same issue of Missiology is an article on a

movement to Christ among ai Buddhists. According to the

author, Manuel Becker, “ailand boasts the second-largest

number of Buddhists in the world after China. e mantra ‘to

be ai is to be Buddhist’ is deeply ingrained in most ai peo-

ple.” Becker goes on to recount a fascinating story of a mission-

ary family who suﬀered a tragedy—the death of a wife—but

allowed the ai community around their family to help sup-

port and pray for them with many turning to Christ. Don’t miss

this compelling account of how a missionary widower returned

to the ﬁeld, married a ai believer, became an integral part

of her family, and was honored at the passing of her father to

be chosen by his deceased spirit as the new head of the family.

e article ends with a brief missiological examination of this

network or movement of close to 3,000 ai Buddhist follow-

ers of Jesus. (“A Case Study of an Insider Movement Among

Buddhists in ailand,” Manuel Becker,

Missiology: An Inter-

national Review,

Vol. 53, Issue 3 [ July–September 2023].)

Frontier Missions and Technology

Questions and Answers about Technology

How will the presence of internet connection and use aﬀect

mission agencies involved in online evangelism or online

scripture engagement? e July–September

Evangelical Mis-

sions Quarterly

is dedicated to these and more technology

questions. (If you don’t have a subscription, you can purchase

a print copy on Amazon.) One fact jumped out from An-

drew Feng’s excellent lead article on digital collaboration:

there are large portions of the world either unconnected to

the internet or not using the internet: Afghanistan (83.3%),

Somalia (90.2%), a very rural India (only 35.87% urbanized)

with 50% of the Frontier People Groups (less than .1% Chris-

tian) is 51.3% unconnected. Take a look at Feng’s multiple lists

of excellent resources and links to a myriad of technological

Missiological Reﬂections

What About Informal Theological Education?

With the reports of burgeoning church planting movements

to Christ taking place in Asia, the Middle East, and Afri-

ca, many are considering the best ways to train new leaders

theologically—and more informally. Don’t miss the report by

Michael Ortiz, International Director of the International

Council for Evangelical eological Education (ICETE)

entitled, “eological Education Can’t Catch Up to Global

Church Growth,”

Christianity Today, June 2, 2023.

Over the past three years, our constituency base has expanded

signicantly to include nonformal and less-structured theo-

logical education. In fact, at that time we had none of these

institutions. Recently welcoming training ministries such as

the Cru-based International Leadership Consortium, Trainers

of Pastors International Coalition (TOPIC), and Increase As-

sociation’s network of training programs for church leaders

throughout Asia, ICETE honors their desire to benet from our

global interconnectedness. This includes creating relationships

with the traditional seminaries to share with nonformal stu-

dents the tools and short courses often associated with higher

education—such as Bible commentaries, simplied theology,

and innovative homiletics. . . . Standards to measure effective

spiritual formation training are being developed in Nigeria

and India. Oral pastoral leadership programs have started in

South Sudan, Uganda, and Ethiopia—and will soon in Tanza-

nia and Senegal. And regional collaboration hubs are being

established in South America and Africa, to link partners in

similar local contexts.

Is Partnership Inherently Western, Egalitarian, and

Individualistic?

Too often Westerners have assumed that an egalitarian

partnership is the best way to relate to indigenous believ-

ers. Author Rennae de Freitas oﬀers up a vigorous argument

against partnerships that overlooks power diﬀerences and a

compelling proposal for a redeemed patron-client system that

stands squarely against corruption. Check out, “Power and

Partnership: Implications of Redeemed Patronage in Mis-

sional Context,” in the July 2023, Volume 51, Issue 3 of

Mis-

siology: An International Review:

Undoubtedly, many Western missionaries swim unaware of

the power factors that make up the water of the Majority

World. Robert Oh, an Asian American missiologist, observes

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

166 In Others’ Words

eﬀorts. Also, look for links on how to join diﬀerent online

prayer teams for people groups and how to engage online with

unreached or frontier people groups.

“If Data is the New Oil, then I want to Own It…”

e use of data is exploding in Asia, but some countries tightly

control it whereas others don’t. How will this impact the witness

for the gospel and the safety and security of believers in restrict-

ed access countries? Don’t miss the article “In Asia, Data Flows

are Part of a New Great Game,”

e Economist, July 10, 2023.

Asia saw international bandwidth usage grow by 39% in

2022. To many, the Chinese model resonates, says Deborah

Elms of Asian Trade Centre in Singapore: “If data is the new

oil, then I want to own it, goes the thinking.”

India Leads the World in Internet Shutdowns

But whereas China and the US are competing to “build and

control digital infrastructure that the other cannot access,” In-

dia is simply shutting it down whenever it wants complete

control. For a democracy, this is a real violation of freedom of

speech and freedom of the press.

For the past ve years India has led the world in internet

shutdowns, according to Access Now, a New York-based ad-

vocacy group. Last year the second-highest number of inter-

net disruptions, 22, was recorded in Ukraine, many of them

related to the war there. In India, there were 84. The majority

of India’s internet shutdowns are imposed in restive areas

such as Jammu & Kashmir, which accounted for more than

half of last year’s stoppages. The small north-eastern state of

Manipur, which has beenriven with ethnic violencesince ear-

ly May, is entering its third straight month of internet black-

out.(“India, an Aspiring Digital Superpower, Keeps Shutting

Down the Internet,” The Economist, July 5, 2023)

Genocide

The Most Globalized Genocide in the World

e chair of the US Commission for International Religious

Freedom, a Uyghur dissident, was interviewed by

Foreign Pol-

icy.

Born in a detention center, he commented that:

China’s campaign against the Uyghurs is the most globalized

genocide in history.Productsproduced byslave laborend up

in the homes of consumers around the world—including,

as of recently, hair weaves seized by U.S. customs that are

thought to be theshorn hairof prisoners.

Take a look at this interview entitled, “e Witness” (Foreign

Policy,

March 20, 2023).

In February 2023,

CNN published a hard-hitting expose when

a major cache of Chinese police documents was leaked. It is

now accessible to the public with an online search engine to

help expatriate Uyghurs ﬁnd out what has happened to their

loved ones in Xinjiang. One man left China in 2003 for an

academic fellowship with the Ford Foundation. He has since

become Deputy Director for the Uyghur Service broadcasts for

Radio Free Asia and just this past February, through this online

search engine, discovered that twenty-nine of his immediate

and extended family members had been detained—and some

had been given long-term jail sentences—just because of their

association with him. (“‘ e Darkness of Not Knowing Disap-

pears’: How a China Data Leak is Giving Uyghurs Answers

About Missing Family Members,”

CNN, February, 2023.)

Is the Darfur Genocide Happening Again to the Same

People?

Civil war broke out again in the Sudan in April with two rival

military factions wreaking havoc and leaving thousands dead

and millions of displaced people in their wake. Don’t over-

look this poignant guest essay in the

New York Times Opinion

section written by a Sudanese graduate student at Yale, Ms.

Bayan Abubakr.

The city of El Geneina, home to over half a million people,

has been described by doctors as“one of the worst places

on earth.”Parts of Khartoum do not haverunning water or

electricityright now. Evacuationremains difcult, if not nearly

impossible. As this disaster has unfolded, international leaders

have once again ignored the Sudanese people. This includes

the more than 8,000 neighborhood resistance committees,

trade unions, and women’s groups that participated in the

Revolutionary Charter for Establishing People’s Power, a blue-

print for abottom-up approachto democracy. The participants

refuse to cooperate with the Sudanese military, which has

orchestrated genocides and violence since Sudan’s indepen-

dence in 1956, or with its dark offshoot, the R.S.F. (“Sudan Will

Not Be Left for Dead,” New York Times, July 7, 2023)

Relief Web commented on the number of people displaced

both internally (2.2 million) and externally to neighboring

countries (700,000)—40% of whom have ﬂed to Egypt:

The continued escalation of violence is compounding an already

dire humanitarian situation in the country and the region. At

least 24.7 million people—about half the population of Su-

dan—are in urgent need of humanitarian aid and protection,

one third of whom are in Darfur, where the situation is deterio-

rating dramatically. (“Nearly 3 Million Displaced by Conict in

Sudan,” Relief Web, July 6, 2023)

Children as Weapons of War

China Erases Cultures and Religions

More than one million children in Tibet have been forced into

year-round boarding schools by the Chinese government in

a largely successful eﬀort to destroy any vestiges of Tibetan

culture, language, and religion in the next generation. is

includes ﬁfty mandatory preschools where 100,000 Tibetan

children ages 4–6 are detained:

The latest salvo was revealed Monday, when three U.N. ex-

perts warned that roughly 1 million Tibetan children have

beenseparated from their familiesand forcibly placed into

Chinese state-run boarding schools, as part of efforts to

absorb them “culturally, religiously and linguistically” into the

In Others’ Words 167

39:2–4 Summer–Winter 2022

dominant Han Chinese culture. The scheme involves placing

children from rural communities into residential schools,

where lessons are conducted solely in Mandarin Chinese with

scant reference to Tibetan history, religion, and certainly not

[to the] exiled spiritual leaderthe Dalai Lama. The result is

that many children forget their native tongue and struggle

to communicate with their parents when they return home,

which is typically just for a week or two each year. (“‘China’s

Residential Schools Separate a Million Tibetan Children from

their Families,’ UN Says,” Time, February 7, 2023)

It Worked in Tibet; Let’s Try it in Xinjiang

More than 900,000 Uyghur children (as of 2019), some

as young as four years old, have been relocated to “schools”

surrounded by barbed wire with armed guards. e Uyghur

language, culture, and Muslim religious practices are all for-

bidden. See “e Urgent Need to Defend Uyghur Children

and eir Families,”

Forbes, May 8, 2023. is is on top of

the forced sterilization and mandated birth control of Uyghur

women—a policy of the Chinese government which has re-

sulted in a precipitous 84% decline in population growth from

2015 to 2018 in Kashgar and Hotan, the two largest Uyghur

prefectures. “In 2018, 80 percent of all net added IUD place-

ments in China were performed in the Uyghur region, de-

spite the fact that the region only makes up 1.8 percent of the

nation’s population.” See the Uyghur Human Rights Project,

April 2023. See also “China Panel Hears Harrowing Stories

from Dissidents,”

Axios, April 2023. And don’t miss the de-

tailed interviews with Uyghur parents in Amnesty Interna-

tional’s “Hearts and Lives Broken: e Nightmare of Uyghur

Families Separated by Repression” (2023).

Gender-Based Violence Targets Young Girls in the Sudan

Since war erupted again in April 2023, 1.5 million children

have been displaced and 13.6 million children—one of every

two children in the Sudan—are urgently in need of humanitar-

ian aid (“Sudan Conﬂict: Children Under Increasing reat,”

Africa News, July 17, 2023). To make matters even worse:

“Teenage girls are being sexually assaulted and raped by

armed combatants in Sudan in alarming numbers, with many

survivors aged between12 and 17 years old,” said Save the

Children. The children make up some of the cases of sexual

and gender-based violence as a result of the escalating con-

ict, with incidents of rape, sexual assault and sexual exploi-

tation being reported by women and girls who have ed the

conict in Khartoum and other areas . . . Some survivors are

arriving in neighbouring countries pregnant as a result of

rape, according toUNHCR. There have also been reports of

girls being kidnapped and held for days while being sexually

assaulted, and of gang rapes of girls and women. (“Sudan:

Children as Young as 12 raped and assaulted,” reliefweb,

Khartoum, 7 July 2023)

Ukrainian Children Kidnapped by Russia Virtually

Untraceable

e horriﬁc methods the Russian Federation is using to destroy

the Ukrainians’ will to ﬁght eerily resemble the brutal geno-

cidal policies of the Chinese Communist government against

the Uyghurs and the Tibetans, just not at the same massive

scale quite yet. But, more than 15,000 Ukrainian children, ages

four to eighteen years, have been removed from their families

by Russian soldiers and taken to Russia to be “reeducated” in

camps, placed in orphanages, and put up for adoption.

Ukraine says it has documented nearly 20,000 cases of de-

ported or forcibly transported children. But that number could

be as high as 300,000, according to the Ukrainian president’s

advisor on Child Rights Daria Herasymchuk.

See the heart wrenching photos of Ukrainian babies being taken

away by Russian soldiers supposedly to protect them from the war

in “Where are Ukraine’s Missing Children?”

(NBC News, July 1,

2023). But as is made clear in a July 3rd article in

e Atlantic:

Russian authorities have gone so far as to make what appears

to be an ofcial, concerted effort to cover the tracks that may

lead to the Ukrainian children’s eventual recovery. Processed

into the Russian system, the children no longer go by their

given names, practice the religions they were raised in, or com-

municate with their families. They are entered into an adoption

system that takes pains to cover up their provenance, an effort

that Ukrainian advocates say not only makes the children un-

traceable, but forms part of a larger project of cultural erasure.

(“The Children Russia Kidnapped,” The Atlantic, July 1, 2023)

What Can Christians Do to Help the Uyghurs?

On the website Neighborly Faith, Chelsea Sobolik, the policy

director for the Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission,

has written an excellent article summarizing the plight of the

Uyghurs and suggesting responses that Christians can take:

William Wilberforce, who famously worked for years to

abolish the slave trade in the UK, stated, “You may choose

to look the other way but you can never say again that you

did not know.” There’s no denying that an ongoing genocide

is occurring against the Uyghurs, and each one of us must

answer the question, “How is the Lord calling me to push

back against the darkness and love my Uyghur neighbor?”

We should earnestly pray over how the Lord is calling us to

get involved in this current season of our lives.

Check out this blog for a list of six practical ways to pray for

the Uyghur people and two practical suggestions for advocacy.

(“A Christian Response to the Uyghur Genocide,” Neighborly

Faith, 2023.)

Note that the Uyghurs, estimated to be 11,768,000 strong, are

one of the thirty-one largest Frontier People Groups with less

than .1% Christians among them. See Joshua Project at joshua-

project.net/languages/uig for a list of resources available in the

Uyghur language. IJFM

Related Perspectives Lesson and Section

Articles in IJFM 39:2–4

Lesson 7: Eras of Mission History (H)

Lesson 10: How Shall They Hear? (C)

Lesson 11: Building Bridges of Love (C)

Lesson 14: Pioneer Church Planting (S)

Crossing Religious and Cultural Frontiers Kang-San Tan (pp. 69–76) X

Making Disciples, Contextualization, and Inreligionization Harold A. Netland (pp. 79–86) X X

Udayanacharya’s Samv

da and the Dialogue of Traditions Brainerd Prince (pp. 87–97) X X

The Faith of Fatima: A Case Study of Musim Followers of Jesus Anna Travis (pp. 99–107) X X X

What Gets “Converted”? Darren Duerksen (pp. 109–116) X X

Dual Religious Belonging as a Contextualised Faith? Kang-San Tan (pp. 117–124) X X

The Life and Thought of R. C. Das H. L. Richard (pp. 127–134) X X

Ceremonialism: Ritual as a Pathway for Relationship Elizabeth L. Walker (pp. 135–141) X X

A Psalmody for Jesu Bhaktas Herbert Hoefer (pp. 143–155) X X

168 IJFM & Perspectives

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

Whether you’re a Perspectives instructor, student, or coordinator, you can continue to

explore issues raised in the course reader and study guide in greater depth in IJFM.

For ease of reference, each IJFM article in the table below is tied thematically to one or

more of the 15 Perspectives lessons, divided into four sections: Biblical (B), Historical (H),

Cultural (C) and Strategic (S).

Disclaimer: The table below shows where the content of a given article might ﬁt; it does

not imply endorsement of a particular article by the editors of the Perspectives materials.

For sake of space, the table only includes lessons related to the articles in a given IJFM

issue. To learn more about the Perspectives course, visit www.perspectives.org.

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