MEDICALLY SUPERVISED WITHDRAWAL FOR
I
NMATES WITH SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS
Federal Bureau of Prisons
Clinical Guidance
FEBRUARY 2020
Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) Clinical Guidance is made available to the public for informational
purposes only. The BOP does not warrant this guidance for any other purpose, and assumes no
responsibility for any injury or damage resulting from the reliance thereof. Proper medical practice
necessitates that all cases are evaluated on an individual basis and that treatment decisions are patient
specific. Consult the BOP Health Management Resources Web page to determine the date of the most
recent update to this document: http://www.bop.gov/resources/health_care_mngmt.jsp
.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
i
WHAT’S NEW IN THE DOCUMENT?
This document was previously issued in 2014 as the BOP Clinical Guidance for Detoxification of
Chemically Dependent Inmates.
N
OTE: The 2014 BOP Clinical Guidance for Detoxification of Chemically Dependent Inmates was revised
from a previous version of the guidance to be in line with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) that was released in May 2013. Other information was included, based
on the Quick Guide for Clinicians Based on TIP 45: Detoxification and Substance Abuse Treatment,
issued by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) in 2006.
Among the revisions to the 2014 guidance contained in this document are:
T
ERMINOLOGY:
• The term detoxification has been changed to medically supervised withdrawal to be consistent with
current medical terminology and the BOP Clinical Guidance on Medications for Opioid Use Disorder,
to be issued in 2020.
• Changed language throughout document to reflect current terminology (e.g., abuse changed to
mi
suse).
O
PIOID WITHDRAWAL:
• Information has been revised regarding the use of buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid withdrawal
in the BOP, including legal requirements for prescribing and a suggested tapering schedule.
• Amended management of opioid withdrawal to include considerations for maintenance therapy.
In the case of opioid use disorders, TREATMENT OF WITHDRAWAL (the subject of this clinical guidance)
should
NOT be confused with the TREATMENT OF SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS, sometimes referred to as
Medications for Opioid Use Disorders (MOUD). Treatment of withdrawal is a short-term procedure by
which medications are used to ease the symptoms of withdrawal, whereas medication treatment for
opioid use disorders is a maintenance treatment usually over a longer period of time.
ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL:
• Removed carbamazepine for alternative management of alcohol withdrawal.
• Added gabapentin for alternative management of alcohol withdrawal.
• Updated CIWA-Ar scoring classification to reflect current guidance. See Table 3 and Table 4, as well
as the Total CIWA-AR Score on the Flowsheet in Appendix 2.
OTHER:
• Removed excerpts from the DSM, due to copyright restrictions.
• Appendix 1, Detoxification Overview, was revised and moved to the new Section 6, Overview of
Withdrawal Management. As a result, the main Sections and Appendices have been renumbered.
• Appendix 1, Symptoms and Signs of Intoxication and Withdrawal, was revised to include alcohol.
• Additional revisions were made to improve clarity and readability of this document.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. PURPOSE ................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 1
3. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TREATING WITHDRAWAL .............................................................................. 1
TABLE 1. Symptoms and Signs of Withdrawal Requiring Immediate Medical Attention ..................... 3
4. MANAGEMENT OF INMATES WITH COMPLICATING MEDICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC CONDITIONS ........................... 4
5. PLACEMENT OF INMATES FOR TREATMENT OF WITHDRAWAL ........................................................................ 5
6. OVERVIEW OF WITHDRAWAL MANAGEMENT................................................................................................. 6
TABLE 2. Overview of Withdrawal Management ................................................................................. 6
7. ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL ............................................................................................................................. 7
TABLE 3. Overview of Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal, Based on CIWA-Ar score .......................... 9
TABLE 4. Recommended Schedule for Lorazepam Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal .................... 10
8. BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL ................................................................................................................ 13
TABLE 5. Potential Progression of Untreated Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Symptoms .................... 14
9. BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL ..................................................................................................................... 16
TABLE 6. Symptoms of Barbiturate Withdrawal ................................................................................ 17
10. OPIOID WITHDRAWAL ............................................................................................................................. 18
11. COCAINE/STIMULANTS ............................................................................................................................ 22
12. INHALANTS ............................................................................................................................................. 22
DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 23
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 25
APPENDIX 1. SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF INTOXICATION AND WITHDRAWAL....................................................... 27
APPENDIX 2. ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT FLOWSHEET ........................................ 29
APPENDIX 3. BENZODIAZEPINE DOSE EQUIVALENTS ...................................................................................... 31
APPENDIX 4. BARBITURATE DOSE EQUIVALENTS ........................................................................................... 32
APPENDIX 5. PATIENT INFORMATION – ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL ..................................................................... 33
APPENDIX 6. PATIENT INFORMATION – BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL .......................................................... 34
APPENDIX 7. PATIENT INFORMATION – BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL .............................................................. 35
APPENDIX 8. PATIENT INFORMATION – OPIOID (NARCOTICS) WITHDRAWAL .................................................... 36
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
1
1. PURPOSE
The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) Clinical Guidance for Medically Supervised Withdrawal for
Inmates with Substance Use Disorders
provides recommended standards for the medical
management of withdrawal for federal inmates with substance use disorders.
In the case of opioid use disorders, TREATMENT OF WITHDRAWAL (the subject of this clinical guidance)
should
NOT be confused with the TREATMENT OF SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS, sometimes referred to as
Medications for Opioid Use Disorders (MOUD). Treatment of withdrawal is a short-term procedure by
which medications are used to ease the symptoms of withdrawal, whereas medication treatment for
opioid use disorders is a maintenance treatment usually over a longer period of time.
For information on medication treatment for opioid use disorder, see the BOP Clinical Guidance on
Medications for Opioid Use Disorder.
2. INTRODUCTION
Substance use disorders (SUDs) pose a significant public health problem. Substance misuse
affects not only the individuals who misuse substances and their families, but also society as a
whole. Substance misuse is associated with increases in crime, domestic violence, highway
fatalities, incarceration, and health care costs.
Any substance that alters perception, mood, or cognition can be misused. Commonly misused
substances include illicit drugs, alcohol, and certain prescription drugs—which act through their
hallucinogenic, stimulant, sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, or narcotic effects. Other less
commonly misused substances include medications with anticholinergic, antihistaminic, or
stimulant effects, e.g., tricyclic antidepressants, antiparkinsonian agents, low potency
antipsychotics, anti-emetics, and cold and allergy preparations.
Substance use disorders are highly prevalent among inmate populations and, while difficult to
accurately measure, some studies have shown that up to 65% of incarcerated persons may have
an active SUD.
The evidence basis for specific evaluation and treatment recommendations is limited. The
recommendations in this guidance reflect expert opinion or consensus and generally accepted
standards of care.
3. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TREATING WITHDRAWAL
The safe and effective treatment of withdrawal syndromes requires that clinicians be alert to
the possibility of SUDs, physiological dependence, and the risk of withdrawal in all new inmate
arrivals at their institutions.
Criteria for the diagnosis of SUDs is published in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5).
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
2
A careful inmate history and clinical assessment is essential.
Individuals who misuse substances are rarely accurate in their description of patterns of drug use;
they can greatly underestimate or deny their misuse of substances, as well as overstate the extent
of their misuse.
The clinical presentations of intoxication and withdrawal for the different groups of substances are
listed in
Appendix 1, Symptoms and Signs of Intoxication and Withdrawal.
The use of more than one substance must be carefully considered.
Individuals who misuse substances are likely to be misusing multiple substances. Intoxication
from or dependence on multiple drugs requires careful attention to withdrawal symptoms and
may complicate treatment of the withdrawal syndrome.
The intensity of withdrawal cannot always be predicted. Frequent clinical assessments, along
with indicated treatment adjustments (in both dose and frequency) are imperative.
The addictive nature of a substance is determined by many factors including the physiology,
psychology, and neurochemistry of the individual, as well as characteristics of the substance
itself. Generally, the most addictive substances are those that are high-potency, that cross the
blood-brain barrier quickly, that have a short half-life, and that produce a significant change in
the neurochemistry of the brain.
Substances that produce dangerous and potentially life-threatening withdrawal syndromes for
individuals with physiological dependence include alcohol, sedative/hypnotics, and anxiolytics.
Although opioid withdrawal rarely causes death directly, it can occur indirectly from suicidality
or overdose. Opioid withdrawal results in significant symptomatology, which can be markedly
reduced with targeted therapies or prevented with continuation or initiation of medications for
opioid use disorder (MOUD). In general, fetal and neonatal outcomes of infants born to mothers
in withdrawal are not well-studied, although fetal alcohol syndrome and neonatal abstinence
syndrome are well-described.
For more information on withdrawal from opioids see the BOP Clinical Guidance on Medications for
Opioid Use Disorders (MOUD).
Not all substances that are misused produce clinically significant withdrawal syndromes.
However, discontinuing substances on which an individual is dependent will likely produce
some PSYCHOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS. Withdrawal from substances such as STIMULANTS, COCAINE,
HALLUCINOGENS, and INHALANTS can be accomplished with psychological support and symptomatic
treatment alone, along with periodic reassessment by a health care provider.
Initiation of withdrawal should be individualized.
Substance use disorder often leads to significant medical sequelae including liver disease,
chronic infections, trauma, cognitive impairment, psychiatric disorders, nutritional deficiencies,
and cardiac disease. Withdrawal is stressful, and may exacerbate or precipitate medical or
psychological decompensation. In some cases, it may be necessary to medically stabilize the
individual and resolve the immediate crisis, prior to initiating withdrawal.
• Every effort should be made to ameliorate the inmate’s symptoms and signs of withdrawal.
Adequate doses of medication should be used, with frequent reassessment. Inmates
experiencing withdrawal should also be kept as physically active as medically permissible.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
3
• A safe withdrawal plan entails, when feasible, substituting a long-acting, cross-tolerant
substance.
That substance is then gradually tapered according to a schedule dependent upon
prior dosing, duration of use, and the setting. As such, some taper-off schedules could last
days to several months.
• To the greatest extent possible during withdrawal treatment, the provider should control the
inmate’s access to the prescribed medication regimen.
Overdose with either the prescribed
medication or other drugs is always a possibility. All medications prescribed for the treatment
of withdrawal should be administered via directly observed therapy. Ideally, dosing should be
three times a day or less, so as to accommodate pill lines at most institutions.
Inmates should be counseled on the dangers of supplementing their regimens with over-the-
counter medications, prescription medications diverted from other inmates, or illicit drugs and
alcohol.
Conditions that require immediate medical attention are listed in TABLE 1 below.
TABLE 1. SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF WITHDRAWAL REQUIRING IMMEDIATE MEDICAL ATTENTION
•
Change in mental status
• Increasing anxiety
• Hallucinations
• Temperature greater than 100.4
o
F
(these patients should be considered
potentially infectious)
• Significant increases and/or decreases
in blood pressure and heart rate
•
Insomnia
• Severe Abdominal pain
• Upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding
• Changes in responsiveness of pupils
• Heightened deep tendon reflexes and ankle
clonus, a reflex beating of the foot when
pressed rostrally, indicating profound
central nervous system irritability and the
potential for seizures
Medical treatment of withdrawal alone is rarely adequate for the treatment of SUDs.
• INMATE EDUCATION regarding the withdrawal process is a necessary component of a successful
treatment plan.
• Clinicians should conduct PERIODIC ASSESSMENTS to detect the development of any psychiatric
symptoms such as depression, suicidal thinking, or underlying psychosis.
• A REFERRAL TO PSYCHOLOGY SERVICES for an evaluation of drug treatment needs and ongoing
psychological support services is recommended. These services provide alternative methods
of coping with the stresses that trigger alcohol or drug misuse. Psychology staff can also
determine whether referrals to drug education or to nonresidential or residential drug
treatment programs are indicated.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
4
4. MANAGEMENT OF INMATES WITH COMPLICATING MEDICAL AND
PSYCHIATRIC CONDITIONS
Careful consideration should be given to inmates with co-morbid medical and psychiatric
conditions
, since these patients are at greater risk for severe withdrawal symptoms and
complications.
• BRAIN INJURY: Inmates with a history of any brain injury are more likely to suffer seizures
and/or delirium during withdrawal, and therefore require closer monitoring.
• CO-MORBID SEIZURE DISORDER: The presence of an underlying seizure disorder must be
considered when managing withdrawal from benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and alcohol.
Patients with pre-existing seizure disorders will be more susceptible to seizures as their
medications are withdrawn; and a slower taper may be indicated for these inmates.
• CARDIAC DISEASE: Inmates with cardiac disease are more sensitive to sympathetic
hyperactivity. Careful monitoring and control of symptoms is essential, and a slow taper may
be indicated.
• LIVER AND KIDNEY DISEASES: Inmates with liver or renal disease may metabolize drugs and
medications more slowly; as such, they require closer monitoring for drug toxicity and
possible adjustments as withdrawal is managed.
• PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS: Inmates with pre-existing psychiatric conditions may suffer an
exacerbation of their illness during withdrawal. A collaborative treatment effort with
psychology and psychiatry staff is warranted for management of these inmates. Inmates
without pre-existing psychiatric illness may also experience significant psychological distress,
including the development of suicidal ideation, plan, and intent. A careful assessment of the
inmate’s mental status, with particular attention to thoughts of self-harm, should be part of
every evaluation.
• ELDERLY INMATES: Elderly inmates are at increased risk of complications during withdrawal.
The elderly are less likely to show marked sympathetic hyperactivity during withdrawal, but
they are just as likely to suffer a severe withdrawal syndrome. Withdrawal in the elderly is
further complicated by a greater use of prescription drugs and, therefore, the potential for
drug-drug interactions. Because of a higher incidence of complicating medical conditions
such as heart disease and cognitive disorders, careful monitoring, ongoing titration of
medications, and even inpatient hospitalization for complicated patients are often necessary.
Because of a greater risk of drug toxicity in the elderly due to slower drug metabolism, if
withdrawal is managed with a medication taper, it may be necessary to use short-acting
medications.
• PREGNANCY AND LACTATION: Pregnancy significantly complicates treatment of withdrawal.
Many medications cross the placenta and/or are secreted in breast milk. Careful consideration
must be given to the effects of medications on the fetus or infant, and these must be weighed
against the risks of withdrawal. In most cases, pregnant women should be maintained on their
medication for SUD throughout their pregnancy, unless contraindicated. Each case is unique,
however, and should be managed in close consultation with an obstetrical specialist. Because
there may be an increased risk of preterm delivery, low infant birth weight, and other
morbidities, the benefits of MOUD during pregnancy are believed to outweigh the risks.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
5
Continuation of MOUD during pregnancy is generally recommended if clinically appropriate
and there are no contraindications. Pregnant women with alcohol dependence should be
managed in an inpatient setting, due to the risk of miscarriage during withdrawal.
For more information on MOUD during pregnancy, see the BOP Clinical Guidance on Medications
for Opioid Use Disorders.
• RISK OF SUICIDE: The frequency of suicide attempts is substantially higher among patients with
a substance use disorder, even for those without a pre-existing psychiatric condition. Frequent
and thorough patient assessments are indicated during the withdrawal period, with particular
attention to thoughts of self-harm.
• SHORT-STAY INMATES: In general, inmates with short sentences, or with lengths of stay thirty
days or less, should NOT be tapered off benzodiazepines or barbiturates if these agents are
currently medically indicated. If discontinuation of opioids is clinically indicated, treatment of
withdrawal can be completed safely in less than two weeks. Treatment of withdrawal from
alcohol is necessary for all inmates who present with alcohol use disorder or withdrawal.
5. PLACEMENT OF INMATES FOR TREATMENT OF WITHDRAWAL
Treatment of withdrawal can be safely and effectively accomplished for inmates in a variety of
housing placements, including:
locked jail units, general population, observation cells in the
health services unit, Special Housing Units, and as inpatients in a community hospital or Medical
Referral Center (MRC).
• The specific housing placement should be in the least restrictive setting necessary, as
determined on a case-by-case basis
, in accordance with BOP policy and through
multidisciplinary recommendations made by health care, psychology, and custody staff. The
optimal placement will depend on the type of substance, the severity of the withdrawal
syndrome, the inmate’s co-morbid medical and psychiatric conditions, security concerns, and
the resources of the institution.
• If an inmate is placed in a locked unit or Special Housing Unit for treatment of withdrawal, their
medications, medical assessments, and ongoing monitoring must all be provided in a timely
manner. If treatment in a locked unit or Special Housing Unit cannot be accomplished with
these assurances, strong consideration should be given to one of two options: (1) inpatient
placement or (2) medical stabilization and maintenance, with postponement of attempts for
treatment of withdrawal.
• Transferring patients from mainline facilities to MRCs for the management of withdrawal is
NOT typically indicated or necessary.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
6
6. OVERVIEW OF WITHDRAWAL MANAGEMENT
Management of withdrawal, including treatment and monitoring, is specific to the substance
being misused. TABLE 2 below provides an overview for the most commonly misused substances,
including links to more detailed information.
This document is for guidance only. Prescribing practitioners must be familiar with official FDA
labeling of any medication they prescribe.
TABLE 2. OVERVIEW OF WITHDRAWAL MANAGEMENT
SUBSTANCE
(section in this
guidance)
MONITORING
PRIMARY
TREATMENT
HOSPITALIZATION?
ALCOHOL
(Section 7)
CIWA-Ar Score:
As frequently as
every hour
See Appendix 2
.
•
Lorazepam
• Thiamine
Strongly recommended for the
following:
• CIWA-Ar score >20
• Wernicke encephalopathy and/or
Korsakoff psychosis
• Current or prior history of delirium
tremens or alcohol-induced seizures
• Pregnancy
Consider hospitalization for patients
with CIWA-Ar scores 16–20, significant
malnutrition, or comorbidities.
BENZODIAZEPINES
(Section 8)
Vital Signs:
Three times a day
for 3 days
•
Clonazepam
As needed for patients showing signs
of late (severe) withdrawal, including:
• Delirium with hallucinations
• Changes in consciousness
• Profound agitation
• Autonomic instability
• Seizures
BARBITURATES
(Section 9)
Vital Signs:
Three times a day
for 3 days
•
Phenobarbital
As needed for patients showing signs
of severe withdrawal, including:
• Changes in consciousness
• Profound agitation
• Hallucinations
• Autonomic instability
• Seizures
OPIOIDS
(Section 10)
Vital Signs:
Daily; more often
if clonidine used
• Buprenorphine
• Methadone
• Symptomatic
Usually not necessary
COCAINE
(Section 11)
Vital Signs:
As needed
• Symptomatic
Usually not necessary
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
7
7. ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL
All incoming inmates should be screened for a history of alcohol use. Inmates presenting with
alcohol intoxication should be presumed to have alcohol use disorder until proven otherwise. A full
assessment should be attempted with all inmates, not only those that present intoxicated.
DIAGNOSIS OF ALCOHOL USE DISORDERS AND WITHDRAWAL
PATIENT EVALUATION
A careful patient history and physical examination by a clinician is indicated for all inmates
suspected of clinically significant alcohol use:
• Inmates may be brought to the Health Services Unit for assessment of intoxication after being
given a breathalyzer test by a correctional officer. Although performance of this test remains
the function of Correctional Services, the results are medically relevant and should be
ascertained and assessed by the clinician.
• An assessment should be made about alcohol use, including frequency of alcohol use, length
of time used, amount used, symptoms of withdrawal when use is decreased or discontinued,
and the date and amount of alcohol last consumed.
• If alcohol use disorder is suspected, further inmate history should cover, in part, other
substances used, symptoms and signs of gastritis or gastrointestinal hemorrhage, history of
trauma (especially head trauma), liver disease, history of seizure disorder, pancreatitis,
psychiatric illness, and suicidal ideation.
• Physical examination is necessary to evaluate the inmate for the aforementioned conditions, as
well as to assess vital signs, possible cardiac and lung disease, and neurologic and mental
status.
• Laboratory evaluation should include a complete blood count, comprehensive serum
chemistry panel, urine toxicology (for medical reasons, not correctional), viral hepatitis panel,
screening for HIV, and a pregnancy test for women.
• Other studies may be indicated by the assessment of the individual inmate such as a chest
radiograph, electrocardiogram, and screening for sexually transmitted diseases.
ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME
Alcohol withdrawal syndrome can develop in any individual who has a history of regular, heavy
use of alcohol; has a known dependence on alcohol; or has clinical signs of intoxication.
Alcohol
withdrawal syndromes can be mild, moderate, or life-threatening. The severity of an individual’s
alcohol withdrawal syndrome is difficult to predict. A history of problems with withdrawal
makes it likely that a similarly severe withdrawal syndrome will occur again. Individuals with a
high blood alcohol level (>100 mg/dL) and concurrent signs of withdrawal are at particularly
high risk for a severe withdrawal syndrome.
Prior to initiating treatment, the inmate’s status should be scored using the Clinical Institute
Withdrawal Assessment of Alcohol, revised (CIWA-Ar), (BP-S708.060). The CIWA-Ar is an
evidence-based scoring system that should be used to objectively assess the severity and progression
of alcohol withdrawal symptoms. The CIWA scoring system and a sample record for CIWA-Ar scores
are provided in
Appendix 2.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
8
SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF WITHDRAWAL: Alcohol withdrawal symptoms can develop within a few
hours of decreasing or discontinuing use. Symptoms peak within 24–36 hours after abstinence
begins, and mild alcohol withdrawal is usually completed within five days. Early symptoms and
signs of withdrawal include gastrointestinal distress, anxiety, irritability, increased blood
pressure, and increased heart rate.
Later, symptoms of moderate intensity develop, including insomnia, tremor, fever, anorexia, and
diaphoresis. Withdrawal seizures can occur at various times during alcohol withdrawal, but can
begin within 48 hours of the last drink. Withdrawal delirium (DELIRIUM TREMENS) begins 48–72
hours after the last drink. If allowed to progress, delirium can result in changes in consciousness,
marked autonomic instability, electrolyte imbalances, hallucinations, and death. With appropriate
intensive treatment, mortality from delirium tremens is markedly reduced (to 1% or less).
In many alcoholics, the severity of withdrawal symptoms increases after repeated withdrawal
episodes. This is known as the
KINDLING PHENOMENON, and suggests that even patients who
experience only mild withdrawal should be treated aggressively to reduce the severity of withdrawal
symptoms in subsequent episodes. Kindling also may contribute to a patient’s relapse risk and to
alcohol-related brain damage and cognitive impairment.
TREATMENT OF ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL
• Specific treatment strategies for alcohol withdrawal should be determined by the condition of
the individual inmate.
• For most patients, withdrawal may be managed in the institution. Patients with severe
symptoms with or at risk of having seizures and/or delirium tremens should typically be
transferred to an inpatient setting for closer monitoring.
• Inmates undergoing alcohol withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider on the
symptoms and signs of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient responsibilities.
Educational information in Appendix 5, Patient Information – Alcohol Withdrawal should be used
when appropriate.
• Supportive care is appropriate for all severity levels of alcohol withdrawal and may include
nutritional supplementation, IV fluids, management of electrolyte abnormalities, and periodic
clinical re-evaluations, as clinically indicated.
THIAMINE REPLACEMENT
Thiamine deficiency in patients with a history of heavy alcohol use is common and can result in
W
ERNICKE’S ENCEPHALOPATHY. To reduce the risk of encephalopathy, all inmates with suspected
alcohol use disorder should be treated with THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1), 100 mg daily, either orally or
intramuscularly.
• Length of treatment—ranging from ten days up to four weeks— is determined by degree of
malnutrition.
• Due to the potential dire consequences of non-compliance, oral doses should be administered
via directly observed therapy.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
9
PARENTERAL THIAMINE replacement should always precede administration of PARENTERAL GLUCOSE (if
indicated for hypoglycemia
) to prevent depletion of endogenous thiamine by the high glucose
intake and the subsequent precipitation or worsening of encephalopathy:
• WERNICKE ENCEPHALOPATHY: Characterized by confusion, lethargy, inattentiveness, impaired
memory, vision changes (e.g., nystagmus), and ataxia. Often undetected and under-diagnosed,
untreated Wernicke’s encephalopathy can advance to Korsakoff psychosis.
• KORSAKOFF PSYCHOSIS: Permanent condition with no known treatment, characterized by
impaired memory (particularly new memory formation), hallucinations, and confabulation.
Korsakoff psychosis is associated with significant morbidity and a 15–20% fatality rate.
PARENTERAL THIAMINE is preferred for the treatment of known or suspected encephalopathy because
intestinal absorption is unpredictable. Patients with suspected Wernicke encephalopathy and/or
Korsakoff psychosis require immediate parenteral administration of thiamine and transfer to a
local hospital.
BENZODIAZEPINE THERAPY FOR ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL
BENZODIAZEPINES are the mainstay of alcohol withdrawal treatment in the correctional setting.
Benzodiazepine treatment for alcohol withdrawal in the BOP should be based on the CIWA-Ar
score (see Appendix 2), in accordance with the guidelines shown below in TABLE 3.
Patients actively seizing as a result of alcohol withdrawal, or showing signs of delirium tremens, should
be treated immediately with benzodiazepines and transferred to a local hospital.
TABLE 3. OVERVIEW OF TREATMENT OF ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL, BASED ON CIWA-AR SCORE
CIWA-A
R
SCORE
L
EVEL OF
WITHDRAWAL
R
ECOMMENDED
TREATMENT
<10
NONE TO
VERY MILD
Supportive care and close monitoring are indicated. Pharmacologic therapy
usually is not needed unless the patient has history of alcohol withdrawal
seizures or co-morbid cardiovascular conditions.
10–15 MILD
Supportive care and close monitoring are indicated. Medication may be
indicated based on clinical judgement.
16–20 MODERATE
Supportive care and close monitoring are indicated. Medication is usually
indicated to reduce symptoms and the risk of major complications.
>20 SEVERE
Strong consideration should be given to
HOSPITALIZATION
of inmates who
exhibit severe symptoms, as they are at increased risk for serious
complications.
LORAZEPAM is the recommended benzodiazepine for managing alcohol withdrawal in most
inmates.
• Lorazepam does not require cytochrome oxidation for metabolism, so its clearance is not
impaired by liver disease
, a common co-morbidity for this inmate population. This is in
contrast to other benzodiazepines such as chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, and clonazepam,
which are metabolized in the liver and can accumulate with slow metabolizers or with liver
disease.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
10
• Lorazepam can be administered orally, intravenously, or intramuscularly—unlike diazepam
and chlordiazepoxide, which should NEVER be given intramuscularly because of erratic
absorption.
► Ambulatory treatment of withdrawal from alcohol is normally managed with oral
benzodiazepines.
Intramuscular administration should be avoided, due to variable drug
absorption.
► IV access should be established in all patients who are at risk of severe withdrawal.
All patients with seizures or delirium tremens should be given IV benzodiazepines.
IV administration should only be considered in the hospital/inpatient setting.
TABLE 4 below outlines lorazepam dosing recommendations based upon CIWA-Ar scores.
• For inmates with MODERATE TO SEVERE WITHDRAWAL, symptom-triggered therapy based
upon CIWA-Ar scores is recommended and has been shown to require less overall
benzodiazepine use.
• A fixed-dose schedule is recommended for inmates with MILD WITHDRAWAL who are being
treated with lorazepam because they have either a history of alcohol withdrawal seizures
or co-morbid cardiovascular conditions.
For information about benzodiazepine dependence, see Section 8, Benzodiazepine Withdrawal.
TABLE 4. RECOMMENDED SCHEDULE FOR LORAZEPAM TREATMENT OF ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL
MILD WITHDRAWAL
CIWA-Ar Score = 10–15
MODERATE WITHDRAWAL
CIWA-Ar Score = 16–20
SEVERE WITHDRAWAL
CIWA-Ar Score >20
MOST INMATES
• Repeat CIWA-Ar every 4–8 hours
until CIWA-Ar score has remained
less than 10 for 24 hours without
medication.
• Lorazepam may be indicated
based on severity of symptoms
and clinical judgment.
• Alternative/adjunctive medications
may be appropriate for the
treatment of mild withdrawal
symptoms.
H
OSPITALIZATION
for treatment of
withdrawal and monitoring may
be considered.
Follow these steps:
1. Administer lorazepam every hour:
2–4
mg IM, PO, or IV.
2. R
epeat CIWA-Ar in one hour
(90 minutes, if giving lorazepam
orally).
3. Repeat lorazepam 2–4 mg every
60–90 minutes until CIWA-Ar
score is less than 10. Then,
discontinue lorazepam.
4. Repeat CIWA-Ar every 4–8 hours
until the score has remained less
than 10 for 24 hours. If the score
rises again within this 24-hour
period, repeat steps 1–3 above.
H
OSPITALIZATION
for treatment of
withdrawal and monitoring is
strongly suggested.
• Lorazepam is administered
according to the same schedule as
described under “Moderate
Withdrawal.” However, an increase
in frequency of both lorazepam
and CIWA-Ar may be indicated.
• Lorazepam can be given up to
2–4 mg IV, as frequently as every
15–20 minutes.
(TABLE 4 CONTINUES ON NEXT PAGE.)
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
11
M
ILD
W
ITHDRAWAL
CIWA-Ar Score = 10–15
M
ODERATE
W
ITHDRAWAL
CIWA-Ar Score = 16–20
S
EVERE
W
ITHDRAWAL
CIWA-Ar Score >20
TABLE 4 (CONTINUED FROM PREVIOUS PAGE)
INMATES WITH HISTORY OF ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL SEIZURES
Do NOT give anti-seizure medications unless the inmate also has an underlying seizure disorder. HOSPITALIZATION is
strongly suggested for patients with history of alcohol withdrawal seizures.
Consider lorazepam treatment, even
if withdrawal symptoms are mild,
based on CIWA-Ar score.
Suggested initial regimen: *
Days 1–6: Monitor every 8 hours
with CIWA-Ar.**
Days 1–2: Lorazepam 2 mg, q8h
Days 3: Lorazepam 1 mg, q8h
Day 4: Lorazepam 1mg, q12h
Day 5: Lorazepam 1 mg, single
dose (AM or HS)
Same as recommended for
MOST INMATES.
Same as recommended for
MOST INMATES.
INMATES WITH CO-MORBID CARDIOVASCULAR CONDITIONS
Conditions include: Hypertension, angina, congestive heart failure, or history of myocardial infarction or stroke.
Consider lorazepam treatment, even
if withdrawal symptoms are mild,
based on CIWA-Ar score.
Suggested initial regimen: *
Days 1–6: Monitor every 8 hours
with CIWA-Ar.**
Days 1–2: Lorazepam 2 mg, q8h
Days 3: Lorazepam 1 mg, q8h
Day 4: Lorazepam 1mg q12h
Day 5: Lorazepam 1 mg, single
dose (AM or HS)
Same as recommended for
MOST INMATES.
Same as recommended for
MOST INMATES.
* In these cases, the dose of lorazepam may need to be decreased if the inmate experiences somnolence, ataxic
gait, slurred speech, or other signs of medication intoxication.
** If the CIWA-Ar score does not decrease, or if it increases to 10 or greater at any time, consider stepping up to
the MODERATE WITHDRAWAL protocol.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
12
ALTERNATIVE/ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENTS FOR MILD ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL
Some medications (e.g., gabapentin and clonidine) may be used to alleviate symptoms of MILD
WITHDRAWAL
, but are not routinely used in the treatment of moderate to severe alcohol withdrawal.
GABAPENTIN
Several clinical trials have shown GABAPENTIN to be a safe and effective ALTERNATIVE to
benzodiazepines for the treatment of
MILD alcohol withdrawal in the ambulatory setting.
Gabapentin has not been found to reduce or prevent withdrawal seizures or delirium tremens, and
should
NOT be prescribed for this purpose.
• Usual side effects include dizziness, ataxia, diarrhea, weakness, and nausea and vomiting.
Gabapentin may exhibit fewer side effects and fewer drug-drug interactions than older
anticonvulsants such as CARBAMAZEPINE. Gabapentin is safe in patients with impaired liver
function.
• Gabapentin may be subject to misuse by some patients, and administration must be carefully
monitored through directly observed therapy. Alternative therapies may be warranted if there
is a concern for misuse.
• The following fixed DOSING SCHEDULE is suggested:
► Day 1: 300mg every 6 hours
► Day 2: 300mg every 8 hours
► Day 3: 300mg every 12 hours
► Day 4: 300mg once daily
Flexibility in dosing and length of treatment may be required, as resolution of withdrawal symptoms
may progress at different rates in different individuals.
CLONIDINE
Many of the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal are caused by increased sympathetic activity
(increased sweating, heart rate, and/or blood pressure). C
LONIDINE has been used successfully to
attenuate these symptoms.
• Clonidine should ONLY be used for MILD withdrawal symptoms. Clonidine will mask the
symptoms of withdrawal and artificially lower the CIWA-Ar score, without decreasing the
risk for seizures or delirium tremens. Therefore, clonidine should NOT be utilized for moderate
or severe withdrawal.
• A variety of DOSING SCHEDULES for clonidine have been used to suppress acute symptoms of
alcohol withdrawal.
A dose of 0.1 to 0.2 mg every 8 hours is adequate to control symptoms,
and can be tapered over three to five days as symptoms subside.
• Clonidine’s usual SIDE EFFECTS include hypotension and somnolence. Treatment with clonidine
requires careful monitoring of vital signs and increased vigilance for other withdrawal
symptoms. Decreased renal function may require more frequent monitoring and lower doses.
• Patients in active substance withdrawal are at increased risk of suicide, and clonidine is fatal in
overdose.
Extra care is warranted, including monitoring inmates for thoughts of self-harm and
limiting its administration to directly observed therapy. Consider administering crushed
immediate-release tablets to prevent “tonguing” or “cheeking” of the medication.
• Concurrent beta-blocker therapy may exacerbate an increase in blood pressure upon clonidine
withdrawal.
If a patient is taking clonidine concurrently with a beta-blocker, it is best to first
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
13
gradually withdraw the beta-blocker, and then withdraw the clonidine over two to four days.
The beta-blocker can then be reinstituted after clonidine has been successfully withdrawn.
OTHER ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENTS OF ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL
• Oxcarbazepine has not been studied extensively for management of alcohol withdrawal and is
NOT recommended.
• Most anti-seizure medications are ineffective for alcohol withdrawal-induced seizures and
delirium tremens.
Benzodiazepines are the first-line agents for prevention and/or management
of these conditions. It is recommended that inmates experiencing seizures be hospitalized for
closer monitoring until seizures abate. Long-term anti-seizure therapy after resolution of
symptoms is not indicated for most patients.
• Individuals in alcohol withdrawal often develop fluid imbalances, electrolyte abnormalities, and
hypoglycemia.
Careful attention to these issues can prevent significant medical complications.
Treatment may require the use of intravenous fluids, glucose (after appropriate thiamine
replacement), and electrolytes.
• Hypomagnesemia may develop during alcohol withdrawal. However, routine magnesium
supplementation has not been proven to be medically necessary, and is not recommended.
• Individuals with alcohol use disorder frequently suffer from malnutrition. Short-term
supplementation with a daily multivitamin (containing folate) is advisable if malnutrition is
suspected. Refer to BOP National Formulary for non-formulary use criteria for multivitamins.
8. BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL
DIAGNOSIS OF BENZODIAZEPINE USE DISORDERS AND WITHDRAWAL
Because of the high risk of delirium, seizures, and death, benzodiazepine withdrawal should
ALWAYS be treated. (See Table 5 next page.)
PHYSIOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE ON BENZODIAZEPINE is diagnosed through a careful determination of
several factors:
type of medications used, length of time used, amount used, reasons for use,
symptoms that occur when doses are missed or medication is discontinued, and date and amount
of drug last used.
• Physiological dependence develops within 3–4 weeks of regular use.
• Physiological dependence can occur even when the medication is taken only as prescribed
and may not include any significant biopsychosocial consequences.
• A full psychological or psychiatric evaluation is indicated for inmates who have developed
drug dependence while taking prescribed benzodiazepines.
Although recreational use and
misuse of benzodiazepines does occur, most inmates who present with benzodiazepine use
disorder had previously been prescribed these medications to treat a psychiatric disorder.
Therefore, psychiatric symptoms are likely to recur during withdrawal from benzodiazepines
and should be treated as needed.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
14
The onset of BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME will vary dependent upon the half-life of the
benzodiazepine used.
Symptoms may begin within 24 to 48 hours of last use with SHORT-ACTING
drugs, or may be delayed up to three weeks with LONG-ACTING benzodiazepines. Most symptoms
will resolve after one to two weeks.
• Subclinical signs of withdrawal (e.g., insomnia and anxiety) may take months or years to
resolve and should be treated with a non-addictive medication before they dominate the
clinical picture. It may be necessary to delay benzodiazepine taper until the inmate has been
on a therapeutic dose of an antidepressant or other appropriate medication for several weeks.
• The withdrawal syndrome from benzodiazepines is similar to that of alcohol and barbiturates,
with the time course depending on the half-life of the substance used. Individuals with
benzodiazepine use disorder often concurrently misuse alcohol, which further complicates
their withdrawal course.
Do NOT use the CIWA-Ar for assessing benzodiazepine withdrawal.
SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL
No objective measure or scoring system has been validated to assess benzodiazepine withdrawal.
• Inmates with suspected benzodiazepine withdrawal should be given a TARGETED PHYSICAL
EXAMINATION
that includes vital signs and an evaluation of cardiovascular, neurologic, and
mental health status.
• LABORATORY EVALUATIONS should include a complete blood count, comprehensive serum
chemistry panel, urine toxicology (for medical reasons, not correctional), viral hepatitis panel,
screening for HIV and a pregnancy test for women.
Treatment of withdrawal is indicated for ALL patients with benzodiazepine dependence—the goal
being to prevent the progression of withdrawal symptoms. (See Treatment of Benzodiazepine
Withdrawal next page.) If left untreated, benzodiazepine withdrawal may progress to life-
threatening symptoms, as outlined below in TABLE 5.
TABLE 5. POTENTIAL PROGRESSION OF UNTREATED BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS
STAGE
SYMPTOMS
E
ARLY
W
ITHDRAWAL
Increased pulse and blood pressure, anxiety, panic attacks, restlessness, and
gastrointestinal upset.
M
ID
W
ITHDRAWAL
In addition to the above, may progress to include tremor, fever, diaphoresis, insomnia,
anorexia, and diarrhea.
L
ATE
W
ITHDRAWAL
If left untreated, a delirium may develop with hallucinations, changes in consciousness,
profound agitation, autonomic instability, seizures, and death. Patients showing signs of
late (severe) withdrawal should be HOSPITALIZED.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
15
TREATMENT OF BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL
Specific treatment strategies for benzodiazepine withdrawal should be determined by the condition of
the individual patient, and should be reviewed and approved by a physician.
The general principle of substituting a SHORT-ACTING medication with a LONG-ACTING one is
especially important in the treatment of benzodiazepine withdrawal.
Many inmates will present
with histories of chronic use of alprazolam (Xanax
®
) or lorazepam (Ativan
®
), both high-potency,
short-acting substances. Attempts at tapering these substances are often unsuccessful and can
lead to significant withdrawal symptoms.
Benzodiazepines with long half-lives—such as CLONAZEPAM—are often used for benzodiazepine
taper.
However, they can accumulate and cause excessive sedation or intoxication. Careful
monitoring is absolutely necessary, especially in the initial stages of changing the inmate to the
longer-acting medication. (See TREATMENT WITH CLONAZEPAM below.)
Inmates experiencing benzodiazepine withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider
on the symptoms and signs of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient
responsibilities. Educational information in Appendix 6, Patient Information – Treatment of
Withdrawal from Benzodiazepines, should be used when appropriate.
TREATMENT WITH CLONAZEPAM
Clonazepam is a high-potency medication with a half-life of greater than 24 hours; it is well-
tolerated, easy to administer and is the preferred medication for treatment of benzodiazepine
withdrawal for most patients.
Clonazepam can be substituted for other benzodiazepines, according to the dose equivalencies listed
in
Appendix 3, Benzodiazepine Dose Equivalents. Individuals metabolize clonazepam at different
rates; therefore, the dose equivalencies will not hold for all inmates and must be individualized
according to the inmate’s response.
• DOSING: Clonazepam is initiated on a three-times-a-day schedule; however, because of the
long half-life, some tapering may be successfully accomplished through once-daily dosing.
The frequency can be adjusted according to appropriate withdrawal symptom monitoring.
As in alcohol withdrawal, sympathetic hyperactivity is an early sign of benzodiazepine
withdrawal. Control of these symptoms is accomplished with adequate dosing of clonazepam.
• MONITORING: During the first three days of treatment with clonazepam, the inmate should be
examined for withdrawal symptoms and have vital signs taken at least every 8 hours. If the
inmate becomes over-sedated or intoxicated, the dose can be lowered until the inmate is more
alert, so long as vital signs remain in the normal range. Stabilization may take two to three
days on clonazepam. After the inmate’s condition has stabilized, the clonazepam can be given
twice-daily, and then tapered gradually.
• TAPERING: The tapering schedule will depend on several factors, including the setting in which
the inmate is treated and the presence of co-morbid medical or psychiatric conditions.
► If the inmate is hospitalized, the medication can be tapered by 10% per day. Throughout the
tapering schedule, inpatients should continue to be evaluated for withdrawal symptoms
every 8 hours.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
16
► If the patient is ambulatory, the medication should not be tapered any more rapidly than
25% per week. Outpatients should be evaluated daily for at least the first week, or as their
condition indicates.
As the taper nears the end, it may be necessary to slow it further if anxiety or insomnia
develop. These symptoms can continue for many months. Referral to Psychological Services
for supportive care, as well as stress management, sleep hygiene, and relaxation training,
may be helpful both during and after treatment.
ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENTS OF BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL
• Psychological and psychiatric treatments are often necessary in the management of patients
physiologically dependent on benzodiazepines. The nature of those treatments will depend on
the individual’s needs. Psychology or psychiatry staff should closely monitor the inmate if a
co-morbid psychiatric disorder is present. INMATE EDUCATION regarding the withdrawal process,
expected symptoms, and possible recurrence of psychiatric symptoms is essential. (See
Appendix 6 for patient information handout.)
• Beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol) and alpha-2 adrenergic agonist medications (e.g., clonidine)
have sometimes been used
to attenuate the sympathetic hyperactivity associated with
benzodiazepine withdrawal. However, these drugs are NOT routinely recommended. They
mask the very symptoms that signal an inadequate dosage of clonazepam, and thereby place
the inmate at increased risk for developing severe withdrawal. If the inmate is already on one
of these medications for other medical conditions such as hypertension, increased vigilance is
necessary to prevent severe withdrawal symptoms from developing.
• Anti-seizure medications are generally NOT indicated for treating withdrawal from
benzodiazepines.
Carbamazepine has been shown to have some efficacy in treating
benzodiazepine withdrawal, but it has many drug-drug interactions and significant side
effects, and can be problematic in patients with liver disease.
Inmates with underlying seizure disorders should have their seizure medication adjusted to
t
herapeutic blood levels. Seizure medication levels should be monitored throughout the withdrawal
process.
9. BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL
DIAGNOSIS OF BARBITURATE USE DISORDER AND WITHDRAWAL
Due to the severity of barbiturate withdrawal, a low threshold should exist for admission to a
local hospital if needed.
• Barbiturates have short half-lives, and withdrawal symptoms can develop within a few hours
of the last dose.
• Discontinuation of barbiturates produces a withdrawal syndrome essentially identical to that
of alcohol and benzodiazepines, and can similarly result in significant morbidity and mortality
if left untreated.
• Unlike benzodiazepines, barbiturates have a narrow therapeutic margin, above which toxicity
and respiratory depression quickly develop.
(List continues on next page.)
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
17
• Although tolerance develops to the sedative and euphoric effects of barbiturates, little
tolerance develops to respiratory depression.
• Withdrawal from barbiturates progresses as shown in TABLE 6 below.
SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL
Do NOT use the CIWA-Ar for assessing barbiturate withdrawal.
The general principles used in assessing benzodiazepine withdrawal, including a targeted
physical examination and laboratory evaluations, apply to the management of barbiturate
withdrawal. (See Symptoms and Signs of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal)
TABLE 6. SYMPTOMS OF BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL
STAGE
SYMPTOMS
M
ILD
W
ITHDRAWAL
Increased pulse and/or blood pressure, anxiety, panic attacks, restlessness,
gastrointestinal distress.
M
ODERATE
W
ITHDRAWAL
In addition to the above, may include tremor, fever, diaphoresis, insomnia, anorexia,
diarrhea.
S
EVERE
W
ITHDRAWAL
Changes in consciousness, profound agitation, hallucinations, autonomic instability,
seizures. Any signs or symptoms of severe withdrawal should prompt
HOSPITALIZATION
.
TREATMENT OF BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL
Inmates experiencing barbiturate withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider on the
symptoms and signs of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient responsibilities.
Educational information in Appendix 7, Patient Information – Barbiturate Withdrawal should be used
when appropriate.
Inmates experiencing barbiturate withdrawal should always be actively medicated. Specific
treatment strategies for barbiturate withdrawal should be determined by the condition of the
individual inmate, and should be reviewed and approved by a physician.
TREATMENT WITH PHENOBARBITAL
• DOSING AND TAPERING: Substitute phenobarbital for the drug being misused in equivalent doses
as per Appendix 4, Barbiturate Dose Equivalents.
► Administer phenobarbital on a four-times-a-day schedule. It may be necessary to establish
a non-standard pill line time to meet the need for directly observed administration of
phenobarbital.
► Stabilize the inmate on the baseline dose for three days, followed by tapering the dose by
no more than 10% every three to five days.
• For outpatients, consider slowing the taper toward the end of the withdrawal schedule.
• Inpatients may be tapered as quickly as 10% of their drug dosage per day.
• MONITORING: Assess the inmate’s condition and vital signs at least every 8 hours during the
first three days of treatment; then, at least every day for the first week; and then as the
inmate’s condition dictates. If this level of monitoring is not possible, consult the Regional
Medical Director for advice, or consider admitting the patient to a local hospital.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
18
ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENTS FOR BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL
• Symptoms of anxiety and insomnia may continue for months after the completion of
withdrawal. As previously mentioned, inmate education is paramount. Referral to
Psychology Services for stress management, relaxation training, and sleep hygiene may be
indicated for certain inmates.
• Beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol) and alpha-2 adrenergic agonist medications (e.g., clonidine)
will mask withdrawal symptoms and complicate management. As such, these drugs are not
routinely recommended in adjunctive treatment for barbiturate withdrawal.
• Inmates with seizure disorders should have anti-seizure medications maintained in the
therapeutic range and should have blood levels checked frequently throughout the process.
10. OPIOID WITHDRAWAL
OPIOIDS are natural or synthetic chemicals that interact with opioid receptors on the nerve cells in
the body and in the brain to reduce feelings of pain.
Historically, opiates referred to drugs derived
from the opium poppy, while opioids referred to synthetic drugs active at the mu receptor. Today,
the term OPIOIDS is used for the entire class of mu agonist drugs, regardless of origin.
Medically supervised opioid withdrawal should NOT be confused with medications for opioid use
disorders (MOUD).
Medically supervised opioid withdrawal involves treatment of withdrawal
symptoms with medications usually over a short period of time; MOUD is a maintenance
treatment of opioid use disorders. This section covers only treatment of withdrawal, and does not
cover MOUD or address the management of opioid intoxication or overdose.
The treatment of withdrawal symptoms typically occurs as part of the transition to MOUD. The
decision to initiate or continue MOUD is a clinical one that should be made after careful
discussion between the patient and the provider. MOUD should NOT be withheld for
administrative reasons.
For more information on MOUD, see the BOP Clinical Guidance on Medications for Opioid Use
D
isorder.
DIAGNOSIS AND EVALUATION OF OPIOID USE DISORDERS
OPIOID WITHDRAWAL is a physiologic syndrome resulting from the sudden cessation of chronic
opioid use, whether from prescribed medications or misuse of illicit drugs. The diagnosis of
OPIOID USE DISORDER is made through a careful patient history and physical examination.
The PATIENT HISTORY should focus on the following information:
• Types of drugs used, route of use, length of time drugs have been used, symptoms when drugs
have been stopped or decreased, and date and amount of last drug use.
• Review of risk factors, symptoms, and previous testing for blood borne pathogens—
hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
• Determination of past medical history and review of symptoms for medical conditions
associated with chronic opioid use such as malnutrition, tuberculosis infection and disease,
trauma, skin infections, endocarditis, and sexually transmitted diseases.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
19
The PHYSICAL EXAMINATION should include, in part: An evaluation of the inmate’s vital signs and
cardiopulmonary status for evidence of fever, heart murmur, or hemodynamic instability. In
addition, there should be a focused examination of the skin for signs of scarring, atrophy,
infection, and the stigmata of endocarditis.
The LABORATORY EVALUATION should include: A complete blood count, comprehensive serum
chemistry panel, urine toxicology, viral hepatitis panel, screening for HIV and a pregnancy test
in women. Other studies such as an electrocardiogram, chest x-ray, and screening for sexually
transmitted diseases could be conducted, depending on the individual historical findings and
physical examination.
DIAGNOSIS OF OPIOID WITHDRAWAL
Untreated opioid withdrawal symptoms typically peak within 72 hours of onset. Symptoms of
withdrawal from short-acting opioids can begin within hours of the last dose, peak within 36–72
hours, and subside over 5–10 days. Longer-acting opioids such as methadone produce a more
protracted withdrawal syndrome, beginning in 24–48 hours, peaking in 72 hours, and subsiding
over 1–3 weeks.
• Early signs of opioid withdrawal include: Rhinorrhea, diaphoresis, lacrimation, yawning,
dilated pupils, and increased temperature.
• Later signs of opioid withdrawal include: Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tenesmus,
piloerection (goose flesh), weakness, increased blood pressure and pulse, agitation,
restlessness, and severe muscle and bone pain.
• The differential diagnosis of opioid withdrawal includes: Sympathomimetic intoxication, as
well as co-occurring withdrawal from alcohol or sedative hypnotics.
• Once the diagnosis of opioid withdrawal is confirmed, the symptom severity should be
quantified
with the Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS), available at
https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/files/ClinicalOpiateWithdrawalScale.pdf . A BEMR-
compatible form is also available in the BOP Clinical Guidance on Medications for Opioid Use
Disorder.
TREATMENT OF OPIOID WITHDRAWAL
Treatment is aimed at reducing the symptoms and signs of withdrawal. Specific treatment should
always be determined by the condition of the individual inmate.
TREATMENT WITH METHADONE
Methadone is a pure mu receptor agonist. Therefore, methadone can cause opioid overdose,
either alone or in combination with other opioids or other sedative/hypnotics. In addition to lethal
respiratory suppression, methadone can also cause long QT and torsades de pointes.
The terms Narcotic Treatment Program and Opioid Treatment Program are used interchangeably by
the DEA and SAMSHA. In the BOP, the term O
PIOID TREATMENT PROGRAM (OTP) is used.
LICENSED OTP FACILITIES: The Federal Narcotic Addict Treatment Act of 1974 restricts the use of
methadone in the treatment of opioid dependence to facilities that are appropriately licensed as
an OTP for maintenance or treatment of opioid withdrawal with methadone. Methadone can be
provided without an OTP license for up to three days
while arranging for an appropriate referral
of the patient to a licensed facility. This three-day allowance cannot be renewed or extended;
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
20
therefore, within the BOP, treatment of withdrawal with methadone requires that arrangements
be made to continue treatment at an OTP licensed by the DEA.
METHADONE as a treatment for opioid withdrawal should ordinarily be administered in accordance
with the following guidance:
• Once a patient is in mild to moderate withdrawal (COWS score 5–24 or above), the INITIAL
DOSE of methadone is 20 mg.
• Methadone can be given in doses of 5–10 mgs orally, every 4–6 hours as needed to control
objective signs of withdrawal, to a maximum dose of 40 mg/day.
• The 40 mg/day dose may be continued for 2–3 days while the patient is enrolled in an OPT to
continue management of withdrawal or to resume MOUD.
• Frequent monitoring for respiratory depression and over-sedation is necessary until the inmate
is stabilized.
• Once signs of withdrawal are controlled and the inmate is stabilized over 2–3 days, tapering
the methadone can begin at a rate of 10% per day.
• CLONIDINE is usually given in conjunction with methadone to minimize withdrawal symptoms
(see Treatment with Clonidine next page).
TREATMENT WITH BUPRENORPHINE
• BUPRENORPHINE is a partial mu receptor agonist/antagonist. As such, buprenorphine has a
ceiling effect and is safer than full agonist opioids.
• Prescribing practitioners must have a DATA WAIVER from the DEA (“X-number”) when not
prescribing buprenorphine through an OTP.
• The usual buprenorphine product is a sublingual film containing buprenorphine in a fixed
dose, combined with naloxone (Suboxone®). The dose is expressed in mg of buprenorphine.
• Because of its partial antagonist activity, buprenorphine can precipitate withdrawal in opioid
dependent patients if it is started before the patient is in mild to moderate withdrawal (COWS
score of 10–24 or higher).
The following is a suggested DOSING SCHEDULE for titrating and tapering buprenorphine/naloxone
for medically supervised withdrawal.
• DAY 1: An initial 4 mg dose of buprenorphine/naloxone is administered after confirming mild
to moderate opioid withdrawal. An additional 4 mg dose may be given no less than one hour
after the first dose if withdrawal symptoms are not well-controlled. The usual total dose on
DAY 1 is 8 mg, although some prescribers will go up to 12 mg for symptom control. Other non-
opioid medications may be used if withdrawal symptoms are not controlled or worsen after
the first dose.
• DAY 2: The starting dose on DAY 2 is the total daily dose from DAY 1. Additional doses, up to
12 mg total daily dose, may be administered to achieve symptom control.
• DAY 3: The one-time dose on DAY 3 is the total daily dose from DAY 2.
• DAY 4 AND BEYOND: Once symptoms are well-controlled for at least 24 hours, tapering may be
accomplished with daily dose reductions. Daily doses of 12 mg or more may be tapered by
4 mg each day until reaching a daily dose of 8 to 10 mg. The dose is then tapered by 2 mg
each day until the medication withdrawal is complete.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
21
SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENT FOR OPIOID WITHDRAWAL
Symptomatic treatment for opioid withdrawal should be provided over 5–10 days, using standard
doses of the following medications unless otherwise contraindicated:
• NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS can be used for pain and fever.
• ANTIDIARRHEALS AND ANTI-EMETICS can be used to control gastrointestinal symptoms.
• BENZODIAZEPINES are useful for insomnia and restlessness, although, unless the patient is being
treatment for co-occurring alcohol withdrawal, they are not typically recommended in the
BOP due to risk of diversion and misuse.
• BUSPIRONE has shown efficacy in reducing anxiety and symptoms associated with opioid
withdrawal, and may be prescribed as needed on a case-by-case basis.
• CLONIDINE is an acceptable alternative/adjunctive treatment for symptoms of opioid
withdrawal, and may be considered. (See discussion below.)
SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENT WITH CLONIDINE
Clonidine is often used together with other medications for symptomatic relief during
withdrawal. Clonidine will suppress many of the symptoms of withdrawal, including
sympathetic hyperactivity, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, and sweating. However, clonidine
has no effect on muscle or bone pain, insomnia, or severe drug craving.
Clonidine is administered in accordance with the following guidance:
• DOSING: Clonidine can be given in doses of 0.1–0.2 mg orally, three to four times daily.
Maintain baseline clonidine dosing for 2–3 days; then, taper off over 5–10 days. Clonidine
patches can be utilized in mild withdrawal cases and are left on for seven days.
• Clonidine can cause hypotension and somnolence (increasing risk of injury), and careful
monitoring is required. Withhold clonidine if systolic blood pressure drops below 90 mm Hg
or if bradycardia develops.
• Patients in active substance withdrawal are at increased risk of suicide, and clonidine is fatal in
overdose.
Extra care is warranted, including monitoring inmates for thoughts of self-harm and
limiting its administration to directly observed therapy. Consider administering crushed
immediate-release tablets to prevent “tonguing” or “cheeking” of the medication.
INMATE COUNSELING AND EDUCATION
Patients with opioid use disorders often express significant fear and anticipatory anxiety
regarding withdrawal—even when symptoms are well-controlled—especially those who have
experienced multiple episodes of withdrawal prior to incarceration.
• Inmates experiencing opioid withdrawal should be counseled by a health care provider on the
symptoms and signs of withdrawal, the anticipated treatment plan, and patient responsibilities.
• Psychological support is often necessary to help ease these anxieties. The inmate’s mental
health status should be monitored on an ongoing basis during withdrawal. Referrals to
psychology and psychiatry staff should be initiated as warranted.
Educational information in Appendix 8, Patient Information – Opioids (Narcotics) Withdrawal should be
used when appropriate.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
22
11. COCAINE/STIMULANTS
For most inmates who use cocaine or other stimulants, medications are not ordinarily indicated
as an initial treatment for withdrawal or dependence, as none have shown efficacy. The cessation
of these substances does not always cause specific withdrawal symptoms. However, symptoms
may be severe enough to require clinical intervention.
SAMHSA recommends that patients withdrawing from stimulants should be monitored closely for
complications of stimulant withdrawal—depression and suicidality, as well as prolonged QTc intervals
and seizures. An ECG is recommended during cocaine withdrawal to monitor for cardiac
complications.
12. INHALANTS
Inhalants are commonly used to obtain a quick high. Substances such as paint thinner, cleaners,
and glue can be breathed in through the nose—a process known as HUFFING. The various
symptoms associated with huffing include dizziness, impaired coordination, slurred speech,
unsteady gait, lethargy, blurred vision, and even stupor or coma. There are no general lab tests
for patients suspected of inhaling a substance. In most cases, treatment is supportive, but in the
case of an overdose, emergency support may be necessary, as well as increased observation to
monitor vital signs.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
23
DEFINITIONS
ADDICTION is the use of substances or engagement in behaviors that become compulsive and often
continue despite harmful consequences. Addiction is a treatable, chronic medical disease
involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and life
experiences.
COMPREHENSIVE SERUM CHEMISTRY PANEL includes, at minimum: glucose, electrolytes, BUN,
creatinine, albumin, bilirubin, AST, and ALT.
CROSS-TOLERANCE is the ability of one drug or substance to act as a physiologic substitute for
another. Using a cross-tolerant substitute allows the dependent individual to “detox” without
experiencing a withdrawal syndrome.
DEPENDENCE exists if a physiological withdrawal syndrome develops when a medication or other
substance is discontinued. Individuals may develop physiological dependence without
developing pathological substance dependence. For example, taking prescribed benzodiazepines
for a psychiatric condition over a prolonged period can lead to physiological dependence,
without other symptoms of substance use disorder developing.
I
NTOXICATION is the condition of having physical or mental control diminished by the effects of
alcohol or drugs.
KINDLING, a phenomenon in which the severity of withdrawal symptoms increases after repeated
withdrawal episodes, is experienced by many individuals with alcohol use disorder. This
phenomenon suggests that even patients who experience only mild withdrawal should be treated
aggressively to reduce the severity of withdrawal symptoms in subsequent episodes. Kindling
also may contribute to a patient’s relapse risk and to alcohol-related brain damage and cognitive
impairment.
MISUSE refers to the use of any substance in a manner that is different from legitimate medical
purposes and prescribing. In order to reduce stigma and negative connotations, the term
substance abuse is no longer preferred.
SUBSTANCE refers to any chemical that is mood- or mind-altering; it can include street drugs,
inhalants, and prescription and over-the-counter medications, as well as nicotine, caffeine, and
alcohol.
SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER is a “cluster of physiological, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms
indicating that an individual continues to use a substance” (DSM-5), despite serious social,
financial, emotional, behavioral, or physical consequences. Physiological dependence may or
may not develop in individuals who are substance-dependent.
TOLERANCE is the “need for markedly increased amounts of the substance to achieve
intoxication,” or a “markedly diminished effect when using the same amount.” (DSM-5).
WERNICKE-KORSAKOFF SYNDROME is caused by a deficiency in thiamine (vitamin B1), commonly
depleted in people with alcohol use disorders due to altered gastrointestinal absorption or a diet
lacking sufficient thiamine. Thiamine is critical for the prevention and treatment of Wernicke’s
encephalopathy, a neurological disorder that manifests as ataxia, ophthalmoplegia, and
confusion. If left untreated, this encephalopathy may progress to permanent cognitive
impairment known as Korsakoff’s psychosis, for which there is no known treatment.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
24
WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME is the characteristic group of symptoms and signs that typically develop
after a rapid, marked decrease or discontinuation of a substance on which an individual is
dependent. The severity and duration of the withdrawal syndrome is determined by a number of
factors: the type of substance, as well as its half-life and duration of action; the length of time
the substance has been used, the amount used, and whether other substances are also used; the
presence of other medical and psychiatric conditions; and other individual biopsychosocial
variables.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
25
REFERENCES
Ait-Daoud N, Malcolm RJ, Johnson BA. An overview of medications for the treatment of
alcohol withdrawal and alcohol dependence with an emphasis on the use of older and newer
anticonvulsants. Addict Behav. 2006;31:1628.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
5
th
ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013. Available at:
http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx
American Psychiatric Association. Practice Guideline for the Pharmacological Treatment of
Patients with Alcohol Use Disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2018.
Available at: https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.books.9781615371969
Asplund CA, Aaronson JW, Aaronson HE. 3 regimens for alcohol withdrawal and
detoxification. J Fam Pract. 2004;53:545–54. Available at:
http://www.jfponline.com/Pages.asp?AID=1730
Bayard M, Mcintyre J, Hill KR, Woodside J. Alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Am Fam
Physician. 2004;69(6):1443–1450. Available at: https://www.aafp.org/afp/2004/0315/p1443.html
Muncie HL, Yasinian Y, Oge L. Outpatient management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome.
Am Fam Physician. 2013;88(9):589–595. Available at:
https://www.aafp.org/afp/2013/1101/p589.html
Becker HC. Kindling in Alcohol Withdrawal. Alcohol Health & Research World. 1998;
22:25–33. Available at: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh22-1/25-34.pdf
Becker WC, Starrels JL. Prescription drug misuse: Epidemiology, prevention, identification, and
management. In: UpToDate, Saxon AJ (Ed). Last updated August 13, 2019. Available at:
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/prescription-drug-misuse-epidemiology-prevention-identification-and-
management
Buydens-Branchey L, Branchey M, Reel-Brander C. Efficacy of buspirone in the treatment of
opioid withdrawal. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;25:230–236.
Malcolm R, Myrick H, Roberts J, et al. The effects of carbamazepine and lorazepam on single
versus multiple previous alcohol withdrawals in an outpatient randomized trial. Gen Intern Med.
2002;17(5):349–355.
Mayo-Smith M. Pharmacological management of alcohol withdrawal: A meta-analysis and
evidence-based practice guideline. American Society of Addiction Medicine Working Group on
Pharmacological Management of Alcohol Withdrawal. JAMA. 1997;278(2):144–51.
Miller NS, Gold MS. Management of withdrawal syndromes and relapse prevention in drug and
alcohol dependence. Am Fam Physician.1998;58(1):139–146. Available at:
https://www.aafp.org/afp/1998/0701/p139.html
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
26
Park TW. Benzodiazepeine use disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations,
course, and diagnosis. In: UpToDate, Saitz R (Ed). Last updated September 26, 2017.
Silbergleit R, Durkalski V, Lowenstein D, et al. Intramuscular versus intravenous therapy for
prehospital status epilepticus. N Engl J Med. 2012:366(7):591– 600. Available at:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22335736
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services. Quick Guide for Clinicians Based on TIP 45: Detoxification and
Substance Abuse Treatment. 2015. Available at:
https://store.samhsa.gov/system/files/sma15-4131.pdf
Sullivan JT, Sykora K, Schneiderman J, Naranjo CA, Sellers EM. Assessment of alcohol
withdrawal: The revised Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol Scale (CIWA-
Ar). British Journal of Addiction. 1989;84:1353–57.
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics [homepage on the internet]. Available at:
http://www.bjs.gov/
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
27
APPENDIX 1. SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF INTOXICATION AND WITHDRAWAL
SUBSTANCE
ACUTE INTOXICATION AND OVERDOSE*
WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME
A
LCOHOL
•
Eyes: Nystagmus
• Cardiovascular: Hypotension, tachycardia
• Psychological: Disinhibited behavior, euphoria, mood
variability
• Other: Metabolic abnormalities including hypoglycemia,
hypokalemia, hyperlactatemia, hypomagnesemia,
hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia; slurred speech,
incoordination; unsteady gait; memory impairment,
stupor; coma
Refer to Appendix 2.
H
ALLUCINOGENS
• LSD
1
• psilocybin
• mescaline
• PCP
2
• STP
3
• MDMA
4
• bromo-DMA
5
•
Eyes: Pupils dilated (normal or small with PCP)
• Cardiovascular: Elevated BP and heart rate
• Psychological: Euphoria, anxiety or panic; paranoid
thought disorder; sensorium often clear; affect
inappropriate; time/visual distortions; visual
hallucinations; depersonalization
• Other: Tendon reflexes hyperactive; temperature
elevated; face flushed
• With PCP: Drooling, blank stare, mutism, amnesia,
analgesia, nystagmus (sometimes vertical), ataxia,
muscle rigidity, impulsive/often violent behavior
None
CNS
S
TIMULANTS
• amphetamines
• cocaine
• methylphenidate
• phenmetrazine
• phenylpropanolamine
• most anti-obesity
drugs
•
Eyes: Pupils dilated and reactive
• Cardiovascular: Elevated BP and heart rate; cardiac
arrhythmias
• Psychological: Sensorium hyperacute or confused;
paranoid ideation; hallucinations; impulsivity; stereotypy
• Other: Tendon reflexes hyperactive; temperature
elevated; respiration shallow; dry mouth; sweating;
tremors; hyperactivity; convulsions; coma
•
Physical: Muscular aches;
abdominal pain; chills,
tremors; voracious hunger;
prolonged sleep; lack of
energy
• Psychological: Anxiety;
profound psychological
depression, sometimes
suicidal; exhaustion
C
ANNABIS
G
ROUP
• marijuana
• hashish
• THC
6
• hash oil
•
Eyes: Pupils unchanged; conjunctiva injected;
• Cardiovascular: BP decreased on standing; heart rate
increased;
• Psychological: Euphoria, anxiety; sensorium often clear;
dreamy, fantasy state; time-space distortions;
hallucinations rare
• Other: Increased appetite
•
Nonspecific symptoms
including anorexia, nausea,
insomnia, restlessness,
irritability, anxiety
O
PIOIDS
• heroin
• morphine
• codeine
• meperidine
• methadone
• hydromorphone
• opium
• pentazocine
• propoxyphene
•
Eyes: Pupils constricted (may be dilated with meperidine
or extreme hypoxia)
• Cardiovascular: Respirations depressed; BP decreased,
sometimes shock; pulmonary edema
• Other: Temperature decreased; reflexes diminished to
absent; stupor or coma; constipation; convulsions with
propoxyphene or meperidine
•
Physical: Pupils dilated;
pulse rapid; gooseflesh;
abdominal cramps; muscle
jerks; “flu” syndrome;
vomiting, diarrhea;
tremulousness; yawning;
• Psychological: Anxiety
APPENDIX 1, Page 1 of 2
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
28
SUBSTANCE
ACUTE INTOXICATION AND OVERDOSE*
WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME
CNS
S
EDATIVES
• barbiturates
• benzodiazepines
• glutethimide
• meprobamate
• methaqualone
•
Eyes: Pupils in mid position and fixed (but dilated with
glutethimide or in severe poisoning)
• Cardiovascular: Respiration depressed; BP decreased,
sometimes shock
• Psychological: Confusion; delirium
• Other: Tendon reflexes depressed; drowsiness or coma;
nystagmus; ataxia, slurred speech; convulsions or hyper-
irritability with methaqualone overdosage; serious
poisoning rare with benzodiazepines alone
Tremulousness; insomnia;
sweat
ing; fever; clonic blink
reflex; anxiety;
cardiovascular collapse;
agitation; delirium;
hallucinations;
disorientation; convulsions;
shock
ANTICHOLINERGICS
• atropine
• belladonna
• henbane
• scopolamine
• trihexyphenidyl
• benztropine mesylate
• procyclidine
• propantheline
bromide
•
Eyes: Pupils dilated and fixed
• Cardiovascular: Heart rate increased
• Psychological: Sensorium clouded; amnesia;
disorientation, visual hallucinations; body image
alterations; confusion
• Other: Temperature elevated; decreased bowel sounds;
drowsiness or coma; flushed, dry skin and mucous
membranes
•
Gastrointestinal and
musculoskeletal symptoms
1
LSD = d-lysergic acid diethylamide
4
MDMA = 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
2
PCP = phencyclidine
5
Bromo-DMA = 4-Bromo-2/5-dimethoxyamphetamine
3
STP = 2,5-dimethoxy-4-metylamphetamine
6
THC = delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
*
Mixed intoxications produce complex combinations of symptoms and signs.
APPENDIX 1, Page 2 of 2
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
29
APPENDIX 2. ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT FLOWSHEET
The CIWA-AR SCALE is the most sensitive tool for assessing a patient who is experiencing
alcohol withdrawal.
GUIDELINES for using the CIWA-Ar Scale on the Alcohol Withdrawal Assessment and Treatment
Flowsheet (next page):
1. USE THE ATTACHED FLOWSHEET TO DOCUMENT the patient’s vitals and CIWA-Ar scores, as well as the
administration of PRN medications.
2. F
OLLOW THE ASSESSMENT PROTOCOL shown at the top of the flowsheet. Record the date, time, vitals,
CIWA-Ar ratings, and Total CIWA-Ar Score
EACH TIME the patient is assessed.
3. T
O CALCULATE THE TOTAL CIWA-AR SCORE, rate the patient according to each of the 10 CIWA-Ar
criteria, and then add together the 10 ratings. Each criterion is rated on a scale from 0 to 7 (except
for “Orientation and Clouding of Sensorium,” rated from 0 to 4). The clinician can select any rating
from 0 to 7 (or 0 to 4), even for criteria where not every number on the rating scale is defined
(e.g., “Nausea/Vomiting” could be scored as a 2 or 3, even though these numbers are not defined).
4. E
ARLY INTERVENTION FOR A TOTAL CIWA-AR SCORE OF 8 OR GREATER provides the best means of
preventing the progression of withdrawal.
FEB 2020 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE
ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT FLOWSHEET FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS
Assessment Protocol
a. Assess vitals and CIWA-Ar.
b. If total CIWA-Ar score > 8, repeat every hour. Once the
CIWA-Ar score < 8, then repeat every 4–8 hours until score
has remained < 8 for 24 hours.
c. If initial Total CIWA-Ar score < 8, repeat CIWA every 4–8 for
24 hours.
d. If indicated, administer PRN medications per BOP protocol.
Date
Time
Pulse
RR
O
2
sat
BP
Use the CIWA-Ar Scale to assess and rate each of the following 10 criteria.
Nausea/Vomiting: Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - none; 1 - mild nausea, no vomiting; 4 - intermittent nausea; 7 - constant nausea,
frequent dry heaves and vomiting
Tremors: Have patient extend arms and spread fingers. Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - no tremor; 1 - not visible, but can be felt fingertip-to-fingertip;
4 - moderate with arms extended; 7 - severe, even with arms not extended
Anxiety: Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - none, at ease; 1 - mildly anxious; 4 - moderately anxious or guarded, so anxiety
is inferred; 7 - equivalent to acute panic states, as in severe delirium or acute
schizophrenic reactions
Agitation: Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - normal activity; 1 - somewhat normal activity; 4 - moderately fidgety and restless;
7 – constantly paces or thrashes about
Paroxysmal Sweats: Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - no sweats; 1 - barely perceptible sweating, palms moist; 4 - beads of sweat
obvious on forehead; 7 - drenching sweats
Orientation & Clouding of Sensorium: Ask, “What day is this? Where are
you? Who am I?” Rate on scale of 0–4.
0 - oriented; 1 - cannot do serial additions, uncertain about date; 2 - disoriented to
date by no more than 2 days; 3 - disoriented to date by > 2 days; 4 - disoriented to
place and/or person
Tactile Disturbances: Ask, “Have you experienced any itching, pins and
needles sensation, burning or numbness, or a feeling of bugs crawling on or
under your skin?” Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - none; 1 - very mild itch, P&N, burning, numbness; 2 - mild itch, P&N, burning,
numbness; 3 - moderate itch, P&N, burning, numbness; 4 - moderate hallucinations;
5 - severe hallucinations; 6 - extremely severe hallucinations; 7 - continuous
hallucinations
Auditory Disturbances: Ask, “Are you more aware of sounds around you?
Are they harsh? Do they startle you? Do you hear anything that disturbs you or
that you know isn’t there?” Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - not present; 1 - very mild harshness or ability to startle; 2 - mild harshness or
ability to startle; 3 - moderate harshness or ability to startle; 4 - moderate
hallucinations; 5 - severe hallucinations; 6 - extremely severe hallucinations;
7 - continuous hallucinations
Visual Disturbances: Ask, “Does the light appear to be too bright? Is its color
different than normal? Does it hurt your eyes? Are you seeing anything that
disturbs you or that you know isn’t there?” Rate on scale of 0–7.
0 - not present; 1 - very mild sensitivity; 2 - mild sensitivity; 3 - moderate sensitivity;
4 - moderate hallucinations; 5 - severe hallucinations; 6 - extremely severe
hallucinations; 7 - continuous hallucinations
Headache: Ask, “Does your head feel different than usual? Does it feel like
there is a band around your head?” Rate on scale of 0–7. Do not rate dizziness
or lightheadedness.
0 - not present; 1 - very mild; 2 - mild; 3 - moderate; 4 - moderately severe;
5 - severe; 6 - very severe; 7 - extremely severe
Total CIWA-Ar Score:
(<10 = none to very mild withdrawal; 10-15 = mild withdrawal;
16-20 = moderate withdrawal; >20 = severe withdrawal)
Indications for PRN Medication: Please follow the protocol in BOP
Clinical Guidance for Treatment of Withdrawal for Inmates with Substance Use
Disorders for use of lorazepam and other medications for withdrawal. See Table 3 and Section 7, Alcohol Withdrawal .
Medication administered? (see Medication Administration Record) Yes/No:
Time of PRN medication administration:
Assessment of response:
(CIWA-Ar Score 30–60 minutes after medication administered)
Provider initials:
Inmate Name _______________________________
Reg No. ___________________________________
Date of Birth ____/____/____
Institution _________________________________
Signature/Title
Initials
Signature/Title
Initials
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
31
APPENDIX 3. BENZODIAZEPINE DOSE EQUIVALENTS
The dose equivalencies and half-lives shown below are estimates only. Dosages may need to be
adjusted based on clinical findings, as well as on other factors such as age that affect the metabolism of
benzodiazepines. For example, liver disease can decrease metabolism and thereby increase the
accumulation of the benzodiazepine. The presence of active metabolites will also increase the half-life of
the medication. Generally, the older the person, the slower the metabolism and the longer the half-life.
For example, the half-life of flurazepam in an elderly individual may be as long as 200 hours.
G
ENERIC
N
AME
(Trade Name)
E
QUIVALENT
D
OSE
(mg)
H
ALF
-L
IFE
(hours)
Alprazolam (Xanax®)
0.5–1
6–15
Chlordiazepoxide (Librium®)
25
24–48
Clonazepam (Klonopin®)
1–2
30–40
Clorazepate (Tranxene®)
7.5–15
30+
Diazepam (Valium®)
10
20–50
Estazolam (ProSom®)
1
10–24
Flurazepam (Dalmane®)
15–30
50–200
Lorazepam (Ativan®)
1–2
10–20
Oxazepam (Sera®x)
10–30
5–10
Temazepam (Restoril®)
15–30
3–20
Triazolam (Halcion®)
0.25
1–5
Zolpidem (Ambien®)
10–20
2–5
R
EFERENCE
:
Park TW. Benzodiazepeine use disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, course, and
diagnosis. In: UpToDate, Saitz R (Ed). Last updated September 26, 2017.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
32
APPENDIX 4. BARBITURATE DOSE EQUIVALENTS
Dose equivalencies are estimates, and dosages should be adjusted according to clinical response.
Barbiturates have a narrow therapeutic window, such that toxicity can develop quickly at dosages above
what is needed to manage withdrawal symptoms. Long-term use produces tolerance to the sedative
and
euphoric effects, but without a concurrent tolerance to respiratory depression. Careful attention to vital
signs, particularly respiratory status, is imperative during withdrawal.
N
OTE: Phenobarbital is the drug of choice for treatment of withdrawal from barbiturates and
barbiturate-like medications. One exception is meprobamate. Meprobamate itself can be
used to detoxify inmates dependent on meprobamate.
BARBITURATE DRUG DOSE CONVERSION (EQUIVALENT TO 180MG OF PHENOBARBITAL)
Generic Name (Trade Name)
Equivalent Dose (mg)
Phenobarbital (180mg)
conversion factor
Butabarbital (many combinations)
600
0.3
Butalbital (Fiorinal®, others)
600
0.3
Pentobarbital (Nembutal®, others)
600
0.3
Secobarbital (Seconal®, others)
600
0.3
BARBITURATE-LIKE DRUGS
Generic Name (Trade Name)
Equivalent Dose (mg)
Meprobamate (Miltown®, others)
(see NOTE above)
2400
0.075
Methaqualone (Quaalude®, others)
1800
0.1
R
EFERENCE
:
Miller NS, Gold MS. Management of withdrawal syndromes and relapse prevention in drug and alcohol
dependence. Am Fam Physician.1998;58(1):139–146.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
33
APPENDIX 5. PATIENT INFORMATION – ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL
Your medical team has determined that you will need medical care to help you safely withdraw from
alcohol. By being an active partner in your own treatment, you can help the withdrawal process be more
effective and more comfortable.
Treating your body’s dependence on alcohol is only the first step towards a sober and healthy life style.
Psychology staff and/or drug treatment counselors will work with you to develop a plan for long-term
recovery. You may also find it helpful to attend AA (Alcoholics Anonymous) meetings at your institution.
What kind of withdrawal symptoms will you get?
It is difficult to predict how alcohol withdrawal will affect any one person. So much depends on your own
physical condition. If you had problems when you stopped drinking before, you are likely to have at least
some of those same symptoms again.
The symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can include: stomach upset, anxiety, mood swings, increased blood
pressure, increased heart rate, insomnia, tremor, fever, loss of appetite, heavy sweating, hallucinations,
seizures, and, in very rare cases, death. However, all of these symptoms can be safely managed with
medical care.
What kind of medical care will you get?
You must take all of your medications just as prescribed. They will be provided through pill line. If you
miss a dose, let the medical staff know immediately.
• You will be given thiamine (a vitamin) to take regularly for several days. It is very important that you
take the thiamine as prescribed to prevent permanent brain damage. To determine what other
medications you need, and how much, your medical team will be examining you regularly for signs of
withdrawal.
• Sometimes, medications such as lorazepam are used to prevent serious complications like high blood
pressure, seizures, or confusion.
• Clonidine is another medication that is often used to treat high blood pressure. It will reduce your blood
pressure and heart rate, as well as help with tremor, anxiety, and sleeplessness. If clonidine is
prescribed for you, it is important to take it on schedule.
Help yourself leave alcohol behind:
1. Be honest about your use of alcohol and other substances. This will help ensure the best
treatment for you.
2. I
MMEDIATELY report any serious symptoms to your medical team—especially chest pain,
hallucinations, fainting, seizures, or suicidal thinking.
3. Take your medications on schedule and as prescribed. They can prevent serious complications.
If you miss a dose, let your medical team know as soon as possible.
4. Stay busy and active during the day. This will help keep your mind occupied and help you sleep
better at night.
5. Talk with psychology staff about other treatment options such as residential and non-residential
drug treatment programs, relaxation training, and stress management.
By working with your medical team, you can help your withdrawal go as smoothly as possible. However,
no matter how carefully the process is managed, you are still likely to have some mild symptoms such as
trouble with sleeping and nervousness. Sometimes, these symptoms can continue for weeks or perhaps
months. Be sure to seek help from medical and psychology staff if you find your symptoms to be
troublesome.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
34
APPENDIX 6. PATIENT INFORMATION – BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL
Your medical team has determined that you will need medical care to help you safely withdraw from
benzodiazepines (tranquilizers). By being an active partner in your own treatment, you can help the
process be more effective and more comfortable.
Treating your body’s dependence on benzodiazepines is only the first step towards a healthy life style.
If you have been prescribed benzodiazepines for a nervous condition, psychiatry and psychology staff will
develop a new treatment plan for your condition that does not require the use of addictive medications.
If you have been misusing benzodiazepines, psychology staff and/or drug treatment counselors will work
with you to develop a plan for long-term recovery. You may also find it helpful to attend NA (Narcotics
Anonymous) meetings at your institution.
What kind of withdrawal symptoms will you get?
It is difficult to predict how benzodiazepine withdrawal will affect any one person. So much depends on
your own physical condition. If you had problems when you stopped taking the medication before, you are
likely to have at least some of those same symptoms again. It is
NOT safe to suddenly stop taking
benzodiazepines.
The symptoms of benzodiazepine withdrawal can include: stomach upset, anxiety, mood swings,
increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, insomnia, tremor, fever, loss of appetite, heavy sweating,
hallucinations, seizures, and, in very rare cases, death. However, all of these symptoms can be safely
managed with medical care.
What kind of medical care will you get?
You may be given the same medication that you have been taking, or the medical staff may determine
that it is safer to substitute another benzodiazepine. Either way, it is very important for you to take your
medication just as prescribed (on schedule) to prevent serious complications such as high blood
pressure, seizures, delirium, and even death.
Your medical team will be examining you regularly for signs of withdrawal so they can determine the
correct dose of your medication. Your medication will be provided through pill line. If you miss a dose, let
the medical staff know immediately.
Help yourself leave benzodiazepines behind:
1. Be honest about your use of benzodiazepines and other substances. This will help ensure the
best treatment for you.
2. I
MMEDIATELY report any serious symptoms to your medical team— especially chest pain,
hallucinations, fainting, seizures, or suicidal thinking.
3. Take your medications on schedule and as prescribed. They can prevent serious complications.
If you miss a dose, let your medical team know as soon as possible.
4. Stay busy and active during the day. This will help keep your mind occupied and help you sleep
better at night.
5. Talk with psychology staff about other treatment options such as residential and non-residential
drug treatment programs, relaxation training, and stress management.
By working with your medical team, you can help your withdrawal go as smoothly as possible. However,
no matter how carefully the process is managed, you are still likely to have some mild symptoms such as
trouble with sleeping and nervousness. Sometimes, these symptoms can continue for weeks or perhaps
months. Be sure to seek help from medical and psychology staff if you find your symptoms to be
troublesome.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
35
APPENDIX 7. PATIENT INFORMATION – BARBITURATE WITHDRAWAL
Your medical team has determined that you will need medical care to help you safely withdraw from
barbiturates. By being an active partner in your own treatment, you can help the process be more
effective and more comfortable.
Treating your body’s dependence on barbiturates is only the first step towards a healthy life style. If you
have been prescribed barbiturates for a nervous condition, psychiatry and psychology staff will develop a
new treatment plan for your condition that does not require the use of addictive medications. If you have
been misusing barbiturates, psychology staff and/or drug treatment counselors will work with you to
develop a treatment plan for long-term recovery. You may also find it helpful to attend NA (Narcotics
Anonymous) meetings at your institution.
What kind of withdrawal symptoms will you get?
It is difficult to predict how barbiturate withdrawal will affect any one person. So much depends on your
own physical condition. If you had problems when you stopped taking the medication before, you are
likely to have at least some of those same symptoms again. It is
NOT safe to suddenly stop taking
barbiturates.
The symptoms of barbiturate withdrawal can include: stomach upset, anxiety, mood swings, increased
blood pressure, increased heart rate, insomnia, tremor, fever, loss of appetite, heavy sweating,
hallucinations, seizures, and, in very rare cases, death. However, all of these symptoms can be safely
managed with medical care.
What kind of medical care will you get?
You may be given the same medication you have been taking, or the medical staff may determine that it
is safer to substitute another barbiturate. Either way, it is very important for you to take your medication
just as prescribed (on schedule) to prevent serious complications such as high blood pressure, seizures,
delirium, and even death.
Your medical team will be examining you regularly for signs of withdrawal so they can determine the
correct dose of your medication. Your medication will be provided through pill line. If you miss a dose, let
the medical staff know immediately.
Help yourself leave barbiturates behind:
1. Be honest about your use of barbiturates and other substances. This will help ensure the best
treatment for you.
2. I
MMEDIATELY report any serious symptoms to your medical team—especially chest pain,
hallucinations, fainting, seizures, or suicidal thinking.
3. Take your medications on schedule and as prescribed. They can prevent serious complications.
If you miss a dose, let your medical team know as soon as possible.
4. Stay busy and active during the day. This will help keep your mind occupied and help you sleep
better at night.
5. Talk with psychology staff about other treatment options such as residential and non-residential
drug treatment programs, relaxation training, and stress management.
By working with your medical team, you can help your withdrawal go as smoothly as possible. However,
no matter how carefully the process is managed, you are still likely to have some mild symptoms such as
trouble with sleeping and nervousness. Sometimes, these symptoms can continue for weeks or perhaps
months. Be sure to seek help from medical and psychology staff if you find your symptoms to be
troublesome.
Federal Bureau of Prisons Medically Supervised Withdrawal
Clinical Guidance February 2020
36
APPENDIX 8. PATIENT INFORMATION – OPIOID (NARCOTICS) WITHDRAWAL
Your medical team has determined that you will need medical care to help you safely withdraw from
opioids. By being an active partner in your own treatment, you can help the process be more effective
and more comfortable.
Treating your body’s dependence on opioids is only the first step towards a healthy life style. If you have
been misusing opioids, psychology and medical staff will work with you to develop a treatment plan for
long-term recovery. You may also find it helpful to attend NA (Narcotics Anonymous) meetings at your
institution.
What kind of withdrawal symptoms will you get?
It is difficult to predict how opioid withdrawal will affect any one person. So much depends on your own
physical condition. If you had problems when you stopped taking opioids before, you are likely to have at
least some of those same symptoms again.
The symptoms of opioid withdrawal can include a runny nose, tearing of the eyes, yawning, dilated pupils,
fever, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, sweating, goose flesh, increased
blood pressure, increased heart rate, nervousness, restlessness, and muscle and bone pain. However,
all of these symptoms can be safely managed with medical care.
What kind of medical care will you get?
To determine what medications you need, and how much, your medical team will be examining you
regularly for signs of withdrawal.
• You must take all of your medications just as prescribed in order to reduce the considerable discomfort
caused by opioid withdrawal. Even with effective treatment, you are likely to experience some
withdrawal symptoms.
• Medications such as clonidine may be used to reduce your blood pressure and heart rate, as well as
help with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, and sweating. If clonidine is prescribed for you, it is very
important to take it on schedule.
• You may be given other medications to help with bone and muscle pain, as well as nausea, diarrhea,
and insomnia.
• Your medications will be provided through pill line. If you miss a dose, let the medical staff know
immediately.
Help yourself leave opioids behind:
1. Be honest about your use of opioids and other substances. This will help ensure the best
treatment for you.
2. I
MMEDIATELY report any serious symptoms to your medical team—especially chest pain, fainting,
severe diarrhea, vomiting, or suicidal thinking.
3. Take your medications on schedule and as prescribed. They can prevent serious discomfort. If
you miss a dose, let your medical team know as soon as possible.
4. Stay busy and active during the day. This will help keep your mind occupied and help you sleep
better at night.
5. Talk with psychology staff about other treatment options such as residential and non-residential
drug treatment programs, relaxation training, and stress management.
By working with your medical team, you can help your withdrawal go as smoothly as possible. However,
no matter how carefully the process is managed, you are still likely to have some mild symptoms, such as
trouble with sleeping, nervousness, drug craving, and physical discomfort. Sometimes anxiety and
insomnia can continue for weeks or months. Be sure to seek help from medical and psychology staff if
you find your symptoms to be troublesome.
