across economic, military, and diplomatic foreign policy issues. Although many factors could
influence foreign policy decisions, “business often wins” and the mass public has “comparatively
muted influence” (Jacobs and Page 2005, 121).
Historical research adds substance to these findings. A foreign policy elite across Congress,
the administration, the intelligence community, and think tanks has long had a culture of expert-led
consensus policymaking, with the executive branch often organizing the policy agenda (O’Leary
1967; Milner and Tingley 2015). Although there are different patterns by topic area, the broad story
of foreign policymaking is a consensus on liberal internationalism and the rise of American-led
globalism (Milner and Tingley 2015; Ambrose and Brinkley 2010). Successive presidents have found
new reasons to enlarge international involvement, from human rights to the Cold War to democracy
promotion to the war on terrorism (Ambrose and Brinkley 2010).
Democratic and Republican administrations often reflected similar strategies and business
community ties, with substantial crossover in administrative personnel (Van Apeldoorn and de
Graaff 2015). But Republican Party officials have traditionally “owned” the issues of national
defense and international affairs, meaning they are traditionally trusted more by the public on those
issues (Egan 2013). And think tanks also grew in foreign policy influence at the end of the Cold
War, extending their domestic focus on individual rights to the international sphere (Snyder 2018).
Issue networks involving business lobbies, administration officials, and think tanks all worked to
expand international involvement across institutions (Hook 2015).
The foreign policy literature thus gives plenty of reason to expect strong elite influence
relative to other spheres of policymaking. But it tends to see a relatively monolithic foreign policy
elite in government, business, and think tanks driving the debate rather than an affluent public
economic class. Knowing how the views of public economic classes, interest groups, and political
parties intersect—and how they jointly help determine policy—remains important and understudied.