THAILAND
DATA COLLECTION SURVEY
ON
INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT
IN
THAILAND
FINAL REPORT
December 2014
JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY
（
JICA
）
KOKUSAI KOGYO CO.,LTD.
1R
JR
14-065
Data Collection Survey on Infrastructure Management in Thailand JICA
Final Report KOKUSAI KOGYO CO., LTD.
- 1 -
Summary
1. Outline of the Survey
Background
In Japan, many infrastructure facilities have already aged and many more will have aged in the
near future, therefore infrastructure facility management to appropriately maintain and repair
facilities, extending their life periods while giving due consideration to budgetary constraints,
has recently been given deep and widespread attention.
In Thailand, aging of infrastructure facilities will become a serious concern in a decade or two.
Moreover, Thailand is still promoting new infrastructure construction to keep up its economic
competence with the world, which means Thailand may need to take care of both aging
infrastructure facilities and new construction simultaneously.
Definition of Infrastructure Management
In this study ‘Infrastructure Management’ is defined as methods and methodologies to
comprehensively plan, manage and operate civil infrastructure systems. Sometimes the term
‘asset management’ is used in similar situations. This term means economically and
technically rational maintenance plans for each facility and equipment and methodologies for
their implementation.
Relationship between infrastructure management, asset management, and engineering
maintenance management for individual facilities is illustrated in the following figure.
( ): examples
Figure: Infrastructure Management System
Objectives
1) Introduce the idea of infrastructure facility management, which can extend life periods
of infrastructure facilities by managing their routine preventive care and maintenance.
2) Introduce Japanese technologies and skills for infrastructure facility management.
Infrastructure Management
Asset
Management
(Water Supply Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Pipelines)
Maintenance
management
(Purification
facilities)
Maintenance
management
(Pumping
stations)
Asset
Management
(Road Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Pavement)
Maintenance
management
(Bridges)
Maintenance
management
(Safety facilities)
Asset
Management
(Railway Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Civil
engineering)
Maintenance
management
(Telecommunication)
Maintenance
management
(Trains)
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Final Report KOKUSAI KOGYO CO., LTD.
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3) Examine possibilities of Japan’s support using Official Development Assistance
and/or application of technologies and expertise from Japanese companies.
Work Period
This survey started in June 2014 and was completed in November 2014. The team executed
two surveys in Thailand during this period.
2. Efforts for Infrastructure Management in Japan
In Japan, the authorities competent in the target sectors in this survey are the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism for the road, railway and sewerage sectors, the Ministry
of Health, Labor and Welfare for the waterworks sector and the Agency for Natural Resources
and Energy, an extra-ministerial bureau of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry for the
electricity sector.
As the implementing organizations in the railway and electricity sectors are private companies,
each of them is taking its own measures against deterioration of infrastructure. The roles of
the competent authorities in these sectors are limited to preparation of laws and standards and
supervision of the service providers.
Since introduction and development of asset management forms the foundations for
infrastructure management, efforts for asset management were explained first.
In the waterworks sector, in June 2004, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW)
developed the Water Supply Vision, which collectively indicates policy priorities concerning
the water supply system in the future, and in July 2008 the introduction of the asset management
method was added as a priority issue. Following the publication of the New Water Supply
Vision, the MHLW has recommended water service providers and prefectural governments to
prepare specific plans since March 2014 to clearly define their scopes of works and encourage
them to take measures compliant with the new vision. The similar efforts have been executed
in the sewerage sector as well.
The Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism (MLIT) began to take
practical measures to facilitate extension of life of infrastructure facilities as measures against
its deterioration in 2006. While the ministry was taking such measures, the ceiling boards in
the Sasago Tunnel collapsed in December 2012. This accident led to spread of the awareness
of the necessity of measures against the deterioration of infrastructure in the Japanese society
and of the necessity of implementation of comprehensive countermeasures. In November
2013, the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism set up the “Basic Plan to
Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities” to develop measures to control the aging of the
infrastructures of the government as a whole.
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Final Report KOKUSAI KOGYO CO., LTD.
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Figure: System of Basic Plan to Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities
In order to extend the life of all infrastructure facilities across the country, this basic plan
presents directives for authorities responsible for the infrastructure to implement collective and
planned infrastructure management under the initiative of the MLIT. MLIT compiled the
measures to be taken for seven years up to 2020 in an Action Plan. Local governments have
begun the preparation of comprehensive public facility management plans.
As an example of a local government, the Fuchu city presented a policy for the infrastructure
management in future based on the result of the study in The Fuchu City Infrastructure
Management Plan, which was published in January 2013. In the plan, the city estimates the
cost-reduction realized by implementing all the measures in the plan at 12%.
New technologies in Japan include: a camera system for inspection used where visual
inspections are not possible, materials to improve durability of road pavements and their ability
to disperse water, and repair methods for pipeline without having to disrupt water supply.
As for international trends, the ISO55000 series are international standards that provide
guidelines for the implementation of asset management by organizations that own and manage
assets in compliance with the stipulated requirements. This series came into force in January
2014.
3. Compare Infrastructure Management Approaches in Developed Countries and
Assess Comparative Advantages of the Japanese Approaches
In the U.S.A., since “Crumbling America” representing the situation in the 1980’s, they have
started to introduce asset management for infrastructure facilities by strengthening financial
capacities and institutional systems. There are no laws or regulations that make asset
management or infrastructure management a requirement. The U.S.A. has a federal system,
meaning that the federal government concentrates on improvement of financial sources,
institutional systems, development of databases for maintenance, investment optimization
systems and so on; meanwhile each state is responsible for implementation of PDCA and so on.
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There are different competent authorities for each sector, unlike Japan where MLIT is
competent in more than 10 sectors. Therefore, federal and state governments do not develop a
cross sectoral holistic policies or plans, nor do they enforce the implementation of such plans.
In Europe, private sector participation has been encouraged since long ago and the central
governments execute the promotion and supervision of private sector participation by using
institutional arrangements. Central governments often adopt the concession contract for the
work which can be expected to be able to recoup costs through tolls/fees, and also PFI by
paying a contractor a fee calculated by shadow toll fee system.
Regarding individual technologies, Japan has a comparative advantageous over the U.S.A. and
U.K. in terms of skills for safe work on roads, which are often narrow and leading to intricate
alleyways, and in terms of durable materials in a climate with large annual temperature
variations and many natural disasters such as typhoons and earthquakes.
Therefore, the advantages of Japan over the Western countries are found in the national-level
planning of comprehensive infrastructure management, systems and methods for providing
assistance to infrastructure administrators in planning, initiatives of municipalities in the
waterworks and sewerage, technologies for working in narrow and intricate roads, and material
technologies in consideration of earthquake resistance and disaster prevention functions.
4. Current Status of Infrastructure Management in Thailand
In the transport and communications sector, investment in new communications infrastructure is
apparent in recent years, while some of transportation infrastructure is getting older. The
situation is similar in the railway sector, where 67% of railways of State Railway of Thailand
are more than 30 years old. For example, aging of bridges is evident: among the bridges
managed by Department of Highways, there are now 338 bridges which are more than 50 years
old, or 2% of the total, and this figure will be 1,818 or 12% in another 10 years.
On the other hand, Thailand is planning to develop new infrastructure facilities in view of the
formation of ASEAN Economic Community in 2015. In 2013, the government announced a
large-scale infrastructure development plan up to 2020 whose total cost amounts to more than 2
trillion baht.
In Thailand, the ratio of senior citizens 65 years of age or older exceeded 7% in 2007, which
means the arrival of an “aging society,” and will reach 14% in 2027 when Thailand will become
a “super-aging society”. Therefore, it will inevitably be difficult in the future to acquire fund
sources for infrastructure improvement.
In Thailand, the demand for construction will continue even after the start of a phase of
maintenance and replacement of infrastructure facilities. Thailand will need to implement both
of them at the same time, therefore it has to devise ways to further improve the efficiency of
constructing and maintaining infrastructure facilities.
The statuses of sectors are recognized as follows by NESDB, which is influential on
infrastructure management through assessment of each organization’s plan and policy:
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For the road sector, maintenance will be emphasized as more priority is placed on railways.
For the railway sector, priority will be placed on new investment to enhance the railway
network.
The waterworks sector has no problem in Metropolitan Water Authority (MWA) and
Provincial Water Authority (PWA) coverage areas with good conditions. However, PWA
has large water supply areas with regional differences so that an adequate level of service
has not reached remote, sparsely populated areas.
The sewerage sector has a problem of not being able to charge for the services.
The power sector has a good financial state and is free of maintenance problems.
5. Case Study on Infrastructure Management in Priority Sectors
Holistic infrastructure management across these sectors should be based on national
government’s plans leading to specific actions. The role of national governments in Thailand,
however, is to make policies and it is implementing organizations that make plans based on the
policies. As such, the planning and budgeting organizations are not aware of nor ready for
their responsibility in infrastructure management. It is difficult to develop measures whose
effect can be confirmed within the scope of this study. Therefore, the Study Team selected
priority sectors which are ready for asset management and developed measures for target
organizations which could cooperate with this study. This process also intended to promote
better understanding of infrastructure management
The waterworks sector and the road sector were selected as priority sectors based on the
assessment result of each sector because the infrastructure management in these sectors in
particular is becoming very important. MWA for the waterworks sector and EXAT for the
road sector were selected as target organizations for case studies because both the management
priority in both organizations is shifting from the new construction to the maintenance and the
basic organizational system to implement infrastructure management has been mostly arranged.
In order to present effective examples to clearly show to each infrastructure management
organization the countermeasures within the capacity of this case study, the case study focuses
on long-term perspectives on a few important issues to examine countermeasures, taking
various circumstances and conditions for the organization into account. In addition, an
examination on the effects of revising road design standards is executed because such a revision
was very effective in Japan. These three case studies with different patterns were executed to
examine countermeasures.
1) Case to Examine Countermeasures to Improve Efficiency of Water Supply Business
This case study focuses on the Metropolitan Water Authority and the feasibility of it utilizing
Life-Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis for selecting new pipe types for replacement. The study also
investigates the most cost effective combination of pipe types in terms of reduction of
non-revenue water ratio and water production costs. The study compares two scenarios of
possible countermeasure, and found that the maintenance cost can be reduced by more than 51
bill baht over the next 50 years.
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Final Report KOKUSAI KOGYO CO., LTD.
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Table: Cost Benefit Ratio and O & M Cost Ratio for Scenarios
Unit: Mill baht/50 years
Scenario
Accumulated operation and
maintenance (O& M) costs Difference
from BS
Cost savings
from BS (%)
Accumulated
O &M
costs/Revenue
(%)
Pipe Pump Total
Baseline
Scenario (BS)
188,105 73,803 261,908 － － 20.8%
Scenario 1 142,763 67,612 210,375 －51,533 20.0% 19.2%
Scenario 2 140,994 66,266 207,260 －54,648 20.9% 18.9%
Note: The accumulated revenue over 50 years is estimated as 1,097,144 million baht.
2) Case to Examine the Countermeasures to Cope With the Deterioration of Concrete
Structures Due to Aging
This case study focuses RC slab of elevated road of Expressway Authority of Thailand
(EXAT) to minimize the required maintenance budget, which is expected to greatly increase in
future due to aging of concrete structures. It examines alternative measures using LCC analysis
to identify the optimum maintenance method. The study compares the total maintenance costs
for 100 years, and found that it is 75 million baht by corrective maintenance and 34 mill baht by
preventive maintenance, and thus the preventive maintenance reduces the total cost by 55%.
Table: Result of Case Study
Accumulated maintenance cost for 100 years (bill baht)
Cost difference
Corrective maintenance
scenario
Preventive maintenance
scenario
Case 1
75
45 40%
Case 2 34 55%
3) Case to Examine the Impact on LCC of Road Pavement by Doubling the Design
Useful Years
In Japan, the revision of road pavement design standard in 2001 was one of the factors that
helped promote the uptake of long life road pavements to reduce LCC. This case Study
examines the impact on LCC of road pavements if such a road pavement design standard
revision is undertaken in Thailand. It compares the LCC of road based on the present design
standard with 15 year service life and LCC of road based on the 30 year service life design
standard. The case Study found that LCC of road pavement can be reduced by 32% based on
100 years.
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6. Technical Transfer
A workshop and a seminar were held during the survey period.
Workshop
For the purpose of explaining study objectives and introducing the approaches toward
infrastructure management in Japan, a workshop was held on July 16th with the attendance of
invitees from target organizations. There were 59 participants from 16 target organizations
and one university, and this implied the high need for technical improvement of infrastructure
management.
The answers to the questionnaires revealed that the workshop enhanced the awareness of
infrastructure management with a focus on preventive maintenance and that there were needs
among the participants for Japanese technology and knowledge for all the aspects of
infrastructure management.
Seminar
For the purpose of explaining the results of the study and suggestions regarding infrastructure
management, a seminar was held on October 21st with the attendance of invitees from target
organizations. There were 60 participants from 17 target organizations and one university.
The Study Team presented the infrastructure management situations and three case studies to
show the effect of life extension measures using LCC in water and road sectors. There was a
presentation from a professor in Chulalongkorn University about ISO55000.
As the summary of this seminar, we pointed out keys to implementing infrastructure
management found through this study. The questionnaire asked how important the participants
consider each key message. Participants understood the importance of all messages, especially
importance of infrastructure management and use of LCC for procurement were understood
well.
Participants from implementation organizations recognize laws and rules, policy, and budget as
obstacles. Other issues mentioned are that it is difficult to convince budget bureau and
executives and especially because they do not have proven performance to convince, and that
structural separation between planning and maintenance makes it difficult to share information.
7. Findings from the Survey
(1) Financial source
SEPO is active to introduce the private fund such as PPP scheme and infrastructure fund
for the development and operation of infrastructure which the profit can be expected.
Securing funding is essential to continue steady maintenance of existing infrastructure
facilities. It is an effective way to create taxes and subsidies preferentially allocated for
maintenance activities in Thailand.
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Final Report KOKUSAI KOGYO CO., LTD.
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(2) Management policy and needs
1) Creation of Framework for Infrastructure Management
In Thailand there is a continuing demand for new infrastructure construction and infrastructure
facilities are increasing and aging at the same time. Under such a circumstance, how to
support budget for new investment and maintenance at the same time is a pressing issue for the
Thai government. The following are suggested as solutions.
1) For new construction, consider measures to minimize LCC from design, procurement
through to the end of use.
2) For maintenance of existing infrastructure facilities, consider LCC and implement
measures against aging and for life extension
To promote proactive engagement in this policy to implementing organizations, it is effective
that national competent authorities set a holistic policy for implementing organizations at
national and local levels to consider all infrastructure facilities including both new and existing
infrastructure facilities.
2) Approaches to State Owned Enterprises
In order to urge state owned enterprises to promote asset management, SEPO which is
responsible for supervising all state enterprises in Thailand should emphasize infrastructure
management in a Statement of Directions.
(3) Management plan and measures
1) Integrated management is essential for successful infrastructure management and
organization structures enabling cross-sectional and comprehensive consideration and
decision making works well.
2) Reduction of LCC by life extension is an important method and it is effective to
proactively promote research on life extension technology and data accumulation on a
trial basis.
3) Understanding of the current situation of RC structures is urgent, therefore, inspection
work and the preparation of inspection database of all facilities should be completed as
soon as possible.
4) The case study showed the advantages of consideration of LCC in selection of several
technologies and materials and of planning a long-term strategy based on cost
estimation for longer than the service lives of materials and equipment. In addition,
it is effective to proactively find and use new and better materials.
(4) Organization structure and skills
1) The revision of design standards of pavement should be actively examined.
2) DOH and DRR offer staff training on maintenance including practical works and LCC
methods. It is useful and should be continued.
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3) Procurement costs can be saved drastically if PWA headquarters establish joint
procurement systems for all 234 branches.
(5) Support from Japan
1) An effective technical training for Thailand should cover practical skills of inspection
and maintenance, analysis such as LCC and projection of deterioration curve, and
infrastructure management method.
2) Because the implementation level of inspection and maintenance in Thailand is
assessed as being quite high, the technologies in Japan which can meet the needs are
only very advanced ones.
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Table of Contents
1 Outline of the Survey ............................................................ 1
Background ................................................................................................................... 1
Definition of Infrastructure Management ..................................................................... 1
Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 1
Scope ............................................................................................................................. 2
Implementation Structure .............................................................................................. 4
Study Team Members ................................................................................................... 9
2 Efforts for Infrastructure Management in Japan ................. 10
Efforts of Central Government ................................................................................... 10
Efforts of Local Governments .................................................................................... 28
New Technologies ...................................................................................................... 36
Commitments by Academic Societies and Industry ................................................... 60
Trend in the Methods for Infrastructure Facility Management ................................... 64
3 Compare Infrastructure Management Approaches in
Developed Countries and Assess Comparative Advantages of
the Japanese Approaches .................................................. 70
Current Situation of Aging Infrastructure Facilities in the U.S.A. and Europe .......... 70
Approaches Taken by the Governments in the U.S.A. and Europe ............................ 79
Infrastructure Management Initiatives in the U.S.A. and Europe ............................... 87
New Technologies in the U.S.A. and Europe ............................................................. 98
Comparative Advantages of Japan Compared with the U.S.A. and Europe ............. 103
4 Current Status of Infrastructure Management in Thailand 106
Status of Aging Infrastructure and Future Forecast .................................................. 106
Current Status of the National Government .............................................................. 110
Current Status of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) ...................... 121
Road Sector ............................................................................................................... 124
Water Supply Sector ................................................................................................. 186
Sewerage Sector ........................................................................................................ 205
Railway Sector .......................................................................................................... 210
Electricity Sector ....................................................................................................... 221
Evaluation Summary ................................................................................................. 236
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5 Case Study on Infrastructure Management ...................... 243
Selection of Target Organizations ............................................................................ 243
Selection of Case Studies in the Priority Sectors ...................................................... 245
Case to Examine Countermeasures to Improve Efficiency of Water Supply Business248
Case to Examine the Countermeasures to Cope With The Deterioration of Concrete
Structures Due To Aging .......................................................................................... 269
Case to Examine the Impact to LCC of Road Pavement by Doubling the Design Useful
Years ......................................................................................................................... 281
6 Technical Transfer ............................................................ 286
Workshop .................................................................................................................. 286
Seminar ..................................................................................................................... 292
7 Findings from the Survey .................................................. 297
Financial Source ....................................................................................................... 297
Management policy and needs .................................................................................. 297
Management plan and measures ............................................................................... 299
Organization structure and skills .............................................................................. 300
Support from Japan ................................................................................................... 301
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Figures
Figure 1 Proportion of Bridges by Decade of Construction in OECD Member Countries .. 11
Figure 2 Change in the Number of Road Bridges (15 m or longer) Used for More or Less than
50 Years in Japan (1991-2051) ....................................................................................... 11
Figure 3 Changes in the Total Length of Water Supply Pipelines and the Proportion of Pipes
Installed at Least 40 Years Ago ...................................................................................... 12
Figure 4 Accidents Caused by Deterioration of a Bridge (above left), a Railway (above right),
a Tunnel (below left) and a Water Supply Pipe (below right) ........................................ 13
Figure 5 Trends of Social Security Expenses and Public Works Expenses ......................... 14
Figure 6 Image of Maintenance Cost Equalization .............................................................. 15
Figure 7 Infrastructure Management System ....................................................................... 16
Figure 8 Asset Management Practice Cycle......................................................................... 18
Figure 9 Feedback to the Reinforcement of the Foundation of Operation and the Regional
Waterworks Vision ......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 10 Trends of Length of Pipelines Constructed Each Year and Incidence of Road
Subsidence ...................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 11 Composition of New Sewerage Vision ................................................................ 23
Figure 12 System of Basic Plan to Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities Promoted by MLIT
........................................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 13 Image of Promotion of Measures to Control Aging Based on Comprehensive Public
Facility Management Plan .............................................................................................. 29
Figure 14 Difference in Annual Infrastructure Management Cost between As-is and Planned
(Predicted) ...................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 15 Description of Pilot Project Concerning Comprehensive Outsourcing ............... 32
Figure 16 Operations of Advanced Business Service Co., Ltd. ........................................... 34
Figure 17 Operations Packaged in the Project ..................................................................... 35
Figure 18 Power Distribution Facilities Cost Equalization Concept .................................... 62
Figure 19 Power Industry Asset Management Activities ..................................................... 63
Figure 20 Engineering Management Cycle .......................................................................... 65
Figure 21 Engineering and Economic Management Cycle .................................................. 66
Figure 22 Relationships between Components of the Asset Management System and the
Requirements in Each Component ................................................................................. 68
Figure 23 Scenes of the Collapse of the Silver Bridge ......................................................... 71
Figure 24 Scenes of the Collapse of the Lakeview Drive Bridge ........................................ 71
Figure 25 Scene of the Collapse of the Highway Bridge in Minneapolis ............................ 72
Figure 26 Road Caved in due to the Water Main Break (January 15, 2014) ....................... 72
Figure 27 Night view during the Northeast Blackout of 2003 (Left: Normal, Right: Blackout)
........................................................................................................................................ 73
Figure 28 Transition of Infrastructure Evaluations by ASCE .............................................. 74
Figure 29 Gap between Future Prospects and Budgets for Maintenance and Replacement in
U.S.A. ............................................................................................................................. 74
Figure 30 Collapse of a Bridge Caused by Breaks of Pre-stressing Steel Bars.................... 75
Figure 31 Overall Evaluation of Infrastructure Facilities in the U.K. .................................. 78
Figure 32 Cost for Infrastructure Improvement in the U.K.................................................. 78
Figure 33 Change in Gas Tax and Its Usage in the U.S.A ................................................... 80
Figure 34 Repair Costs of Major Bridges in City of NY (1981-2002) ................................ 81
Figure 35 FHWA Organization Chart .................................................................................. 82
Figure 36 Road Map of Transportation Asset Management Guide: A Focus on Implementation
........................................................................................................................................ 83
Figure 37 Percentage of Pipes that were Installed 100 Years Ago or More ........................ 87
Figure 38 Major Concession Toll Roads in U.S.A ............................................................... 88
Figure 39 Millau Viaduct ..................................................................................................... 95
Figure 40 Architectural Framework of BRIME ................................................................... 97
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Figure 41 Trends of Net Social Capital in Public Sector (current prices) .......................... 106
Figure 42 Number of Bridges by Age ................................................................................ 107
Figure 43 Demographic Statistics of Thailand (1950 – 2050) ........................................... 108
Figure 44 Project Application and Review Scheme ........................................................... 112
Figure 45 Application for Annual Budget and Review Scheme ........................................ 113
Figure 46 Roads in Thailand .............................................................................................. 125
Figure 47 Organization Chart of DOH ............................................................................... 128
Figure 48 Trend of DOH Budget for New Construction and Maintenance & Repair ........ 129
Figure 49 Classification Guideline for the Maintenance Budge ........................................ 131
Figure 50 Budget Proposal and Approval Stream within DOH ......................................... 132
Figure 51 Inspection and Evaluation Sheet ........................................................................ 133
Figure 52 Hawk Eyes Produced by ARRP Company ........................................................ 134
Figure 53 Maintenance Manual and Inspection Sheet ....................................................... 137
Figure 54 Structure of Road Maintenance Management System ....................................... 138
Figure 55 Screen Shot of Road Maintenance and Management System ............................ 139
Figure 56 Number of Bridges by Age Category as of Feb. 2014 ....................................... 140
Figure 57 Classification of Bridges used by DOH ............................................................. 140
Figure 58 Number of Bridges by Type .............................................................................. 141
Figure 59 Workflow of Budget Approval for Bridges ....................................................... 144
Figure 60 Organization Chart of DRR ............................................................................... 146
Figure 61 Image of Benkelman Beam Test ........................................................................ 148
Figure 62 Rosy Car ............................................................................................................ 149
Figure 63 Map of Expressways Managed by EXAT ......................................................... 154
Figure 64 Classification of EXAT Expressways by Service Years ................................... 155
Figure 65 EXAT Organization Chart (Source: EXAT Annual Report 2013)
...................................................................................................................................... 157
Figure 66 Tools Used for Daily Inspection ........................................................................ 161
Figure 67 Yearly Inspection Schedule ............................................................................... 162
Figure 68 Tools Used for Special Inspection ..................................................................... 163
Figure 69 Inspection of Foundations of Viaduct ................................................................ 163
Figure 70 Elevation Plan of Rama IX Bridge .................................................................... 167
Figure 71 Organization Chart of Public Works Department of BMA ............................... 170
Figure 72 Bridge Site Location Shown in the Database .................................................... 171
Figure 73 Basic Information of Bridge Shown in the Database ......................................... 172
Figure 74 Site Photos of Damage Shown in the Database ................................................. 172
Figure 75 Example of Bridge Inspection Report ................................................................ 173
Figure 76 Diagnosis Record of Bridge ............................................................................... 174
Figure 77 Inspection Data of Super-structure .................................................................... 181
Figure 78 Inspection Data of Super Structure Before and After Repair ............................ 184
Figure 79 Service Area of MWA ....................................................................................... 186
Figure 80 Previous Management Tool ............................................................................... 193
Figure 81 Linking Pipeline Facility Maps with As-built Drawings ................................... 193
Figure 82 GIS Usage in MWA ........................................................................................... 194
Figure 83 Before and After Repair of Filter Basin ............................................................. 196
Figure 84 Water Leakage in Water Purification Facility ................................................... 196
Figure 85 Flow Rate in Distribution Pipe .......................................................................... 202
Figure 86 Repair History of Pipelines ................................................................................ 203
Figure 87 Hydrological Accounting (Rangsit Branch) ...................................................... 203
Figure 88 DSD Organization Chart .................................................................................... 206
Figure 89 SRT Trunk Railway Lines ................................................................................. 211
Figure 90 SRT Organization Chart .................................................................................... 212
Figure 91 Trend of Number of Passengers of MRT Blue Line .......................................... 216
Figure 92 MRTA Organization Chart ................................................................................ 217
Figure 93 BMCL Organization Chart for Engineering and Maintenance Group ............... 217
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Figure 94 BMCL’s Asset Management Strategy ............................................................... 219
Figure 95 BMCL’s Asset Management for Contractors .................................................... 220
Figure 96 Structure of Electricity Market in Thailand ....................................................... 221
Figure 97 EGAT Organization Chart ................................................................................. 223
Figure 98 MEA Trend of Power Consumption .................................................................. 227
Figure 99 MEA Trend of Number of End Users ................................................................ 227
Figure 100 MEA Organization Chart ................................................................................. 228
Figure 101 PEA Organization Chart .................................................................................. 232
Figure 102 PEA’s Basic Concept of Asset Management ................................................... 233
Figure 103 Focus in Long, Mid, and Short-Term Asset Management Plan ....................... 234
Figure 104 Present Condition of Each Sector in terms of Management of Infrastructure
Facilities ....................................................................................................................... 245
Figure 105 Length of AC Pipe and PVC Pipe by Year to be Replaced ............................. 249
Figure 106 Changes in NRW, Total Water Consumption and Ratio of NRW ................... 250
Figure 107 Changes in Population in the Water Supply Area ........................................... 251
Figure 108 Basic Policy of the Case Study ........................................................................ 252
Figure 109 Change in Operation and Maintenance Costs: Baseline Scenario ................... 260
Figure 110 Change in NRW Rate: Baseline Scenario ........................................................ 260
Figure 111 Change in Operation and Maintenance Costs: Scenario 1 ............................... 261
Figure 112 Change in NRW Rate: Scenario 1 ................................................................... 261
Figure 113 Change in Operation and Maintenance Costs: Scenario 2 ............................... 262
Figure 114 Change in NRW Rate: Scenario 2 ................................................................... 262
Figure 115 Accumulated Operation and Maintenance Costs for 3 Scenarios .................... 263
Figure 116 Change of NRW Rate and NRW for 3 Scenarios ............................................ 263
Figure 117 Operation and Maintenance Costs of Pumps: Baseline Scenario .................... 264
Figure 118 Operation and Maintenance Costs of Pumps: Scenario 1 ................................ 265
Figure 119 Operation and Maintenance Costs of Pumps: Scenario 2 ................................ 265
Figure 120 Operation and Maintenance Cost of Pumps: 3 Scenarios ................................ 266
Figure 121 Accumulated Operation and Maintenance Costs including Pumps for 3 Scenarios
...................................................................................................................................... 267
Figure 122 Classification of EXAT Expressway by Service Years ................................... 270
Figure 123 An Example of Deterioration of RC Slab ........................................................ 271
Figure 124 Image of Deterioration Curve of Concrete Structure ....................................... 272
Figure 125 Image of Performance Curves by Scenario ..................................................... 273
Figure 126 Accumulated maintenance cost (LCC) of RC slab by corrective maintenance for
Din Daeng Expressway ................................................................................................ 274
Figure 127 Accumulated maintenance cost (LCC) of RC slab by corrective maintenance for
all expressways ............................................................................................................. 274
Figure 128 Image of thickening RC slab method ............................................................... 275
Figure 129 Pictures of implementation of thickening RC slab method ............................. 275
Figure 130 Accumulated maintenance cost of RC (LCC) slab for Din Daeng Expressway in
Case 1 ........................................................................................................................... 277
Figure 131 Accumulated maintenance cost (LCC) of RC slab for all expressways in Case 1
...................................................................................................................................... 278
Figure 132 Accumulated maintenance cost (LCC) of RC slab for Din Daeng expressway in
Case 2 ........................................................................................................................... 279
Figure 133 Accumulated maintenance cost (LCC) of RC slab for all expressway in Case 2279
Figure 134 Length of Highway of DOH ............................................................................ 281
Figure 135 Estimated LCC of Road Pavement by Different Design Useful Life .............. 284
Figure 136 Interesting Topics by Sector (multiple answers allowed) ................................ 290
Figure 137 Recognition of Importance by Key Message ................................................... 295
Figure 138 Issues in Infrastructure Management in Thailand ............................................ 298
Figure 139 Government-led Plan to Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities .................... 298
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Tables
Table 1 Target Areas and Facilities ........................................................................................ 3
Table 2 Contents of the Initial Study ..................................................................................... 4
Table 3 Queries based on PDCA to Administrative Organizations in Thailand .................... 6
Table 4 Schedule of Visit for Interview ................................................................................. 7
Table 5 Possible Recommendations of Measures to be Taken (Tentative) ............................ 8
Table 6 2
nd
Study Schedule .................................................................................................... 9
Table 7 Measures Relative to Infrastructure Management Taken by MLIT and MIC in Recent
Years ............................................................................................................................... 23
Table 8 Fuchu Infrastructure Management Plan .................................................................. 30
Table 9 Difference in Annual Infrastructure Management Cost between Planned and As-is
(keeping current level) .................................................................................................... 31
Table 10 Comprehensive Outsourcing by Kiyosato-cho, Hokkaido .................................... 33
Table 11 Comprehensive Outsourcing by Ozora-cho, Hokkaido ........................................ 33
Table 12 Criteria for Selection of New Technologies .......................................................... 36
Table 13 New Technologies Used in Japan ......................................................................... 37
Table 14 Special Issues on Infrastructure Management in JSCE Magazine ........................ 61
Table 15 Major Defects of Bridges in OECD Countries ...................................................... 76
Table 16 Maintenance Costs in OECD Countries ................................................................ 77
Table 17 Recent Surface Transportation Assistance Act and Budget .................................. 80
Table 18 Chronological Table of the Adoption of PFI by the U.K. Government ................ 85
Table 19 Infrastructure Improvement Initiatives in the U.K. ............................................... 86
Table 20 Examples of Concession of Toll Roads by Type .................................................. 88
Table 21 Concession Period and Fee in the U.S.A and Europe ........................................... 89
Table 22 Time Introduced PBMC by State .......................................................................... 90
Table 23 Details of Comprehensive Road Management Project in the City of Portsmouth 92
Table 24 Details of Comprehensive Road Management Project in the City of Birmingham93
Table 25 Details of Hounslow Borough Comprehensive Road Maintenance Project ......... 94
Table 26 New Major Technologies Used in Europe ............................................................ 98
Table 27 Comparison of Infrastructure Management Initiatives in Japan, U.S.A. and U.K.103
Table 28 Classification of Japanese Technologies and Know-how that are More Easily
Applied than those of the U.S.A. and Europe .............................................................. 105
Table 29 Infrastructure Improvement Plan (2013 – 2020) ................................................. 108
Table 30 Roles of National Government Organizations .................................................... 110
Table 31 Institutional Status of the Target Organizations and Infrastructure Maintained . 111
Table 32 Trend of DPT’s Budget and its Budget for Maintenance .................................... 120
Table 33 Priority Issues in BMA’s Budget for the Year 2015 ........................................... 121
Table 34 BMA’s Budget of Recent Years (2012-2014) ..................................................... 122
Table 35 Budget Appropriation to Departments (2013-2014) ........................................... 122
Table 36 Breakdown of Budget for Repair and Maintenance ............................................ 122
Table 37 List of Road Categories ....................................................................................... 124
Table 38 Budget for Road Departments in MOT ............................................................... 125
Table 39 Regulation and Manuals for Roads and Bridges ................................................. 126
Table 40 DOH Road Length by Surface Type ................................................................... 127
Table 41 Section Length by Road Type ............................................................................. 127
Table 42 Breakdown of Maintenance Budget .................................................................... 129
Table 43 Code No. of the Maintenance Budget ........................................................ 130
Table 44 History of Road Surface Condition Survey ......................................................... 135
Table 45 Inspection Data of Overweight Trucks ............................................................... 135
Table 46 Result of Road Surface Condition Survey .......................................................... 138
Table 47 List of Expressways Managed by EXAT ............................................................ 155
Table 48 Main Information of Cable-Stayed Type Bridges in EXAT Expressways ......... 156
Table 49 Trends of Length of Expressway and Number of User Cars, 2008 to 2013 ....... 158
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Table 50 Trends of Income Statement Results, 2008 to 2013 ............................................ 158
Table 51 Trends of Balance Sheet, 2008 to 2013 ............................................................... 158
Table 52 Breakdown of Tangible Fixed Assets, as of the end of September 2013 ............ 159
Table 53 Major Financial Index ......................................................................................... 159
Table 54 Trend of Maintenance Costs ............................................................................... 159
Table 55 Forecast of Revenue and Expense ....................................................................... 160
Table 56 Role of Each Sub-Unit of Expressway Maintenance Division ........................... 160
Table 57 Bridge Inspection Sheet ...................................................................................... 174
Table 58 Trend of Length of Distribution Pipes ................................................................ 187
Table 59 List of Regions and Branch Offices .................................................................... 187
Table 60 MWA’s Statement of Income ............................................................................. 188
Table 61 Operating Costs for Maintenance ........................................................................ 188
Table 62 MWA’s Balance Sheet ........................................................................................ 189
Table 63 Physical Fixed Assets .......................................................................................... 190
Table 64 Major Financial Index ......................................................................................... 190
Table 65 Water Leakage Causes and Repair Works .......................................................... 192
Table 66 Number of Asbestos and PVC Pipe Water Leaks ............................................... 195
Table 67 Change in Pipeline Replacement Plan ................................................................ 195
Table 68 Number of Branches by Group ........................................................................... 198
Table 69 PWA’s Statement of Income ............................................................................... 199
Table 70 PWA’s Balance Sheet ......................................................................................... 200
Table 71 Physical Fixed Assets .......................................................................................... 200
Table 72 Major Financial Index ......................................................................................... 201
Table 73 PWA’s Business Strategy ................................................................................... 201
Table 74 SRT Trunk Lines and Length .............................................................................. 210
Table 75 SRT’s Statement of Income ................................................................................ 213
Table 76 Number of Derailment Accidents ....................................................................... 213
Table 77 Type of Railway Track ........................................................................................ 213
Table 78 Usage of Type of Sleeper .................................................................................... 214
Table 79 MRTA’s Statement of Income ............................................................................ 218
Table 80 Power Volume Supplied by EGAT by Buyer ..................................................... 222
Table 81 Length of Transmission Lines by Capacity ......................................................... 222
Table 82 EGAT Main Facilities and Capacity ................................................................... 223
Table 83 EGAT Consolidated Statement of Income .......................................................... 224
Table 84 EGAT Consolidated Balance Sheet .................................................................... 224
Table 85 Fixed Assets and Depreciation Period (as of 2013 December) ........................... 225
Table 86 Major Financial Index ......................................................................................... 225
Table 87 MEA Main Facilities and Capacity (2006) ......................................................... 227
Table 88 MEA Statement of Income .................................................................................. 229
Table 89 MEA Balance Sheet 2011-2012 .......................................................................... 229
Table 90 MEA Fixed Assets (As of 2012 December) ........................................................ 230
Table 91 Major Financial Index ......................................................................................... 230
Table 92 PEA’s Main Infrastructure Facilities ................................................................... 232
Table 93 PEA Statement of Income ................................................................................... 233
Table 94 Breakdown of Fixed Assets ................................................................................ 248
Table 95 Length of Pipes by Type and Material ................................................................ 249
Table 96 Length and NRW Ratio of Distribution Branch Pipe and Service Pipe .............. 250
Table 97 Characteristics and Usage in Scenario 2 by Pipe Type ....................................... 253
Table 98 Comparison of Benefit over LCC by Pipe Type (200mm) ................................. 254
Table 99 Comparison of Benefit over LCC by Pipe Type (400mm) ................................. 254
Table 100 Pipe Types and Replacement Plan by Scenario ................................................ 255
Table 101 Forecast of the Yearly Volume of Revenue Water ........................................... 256
Table 102 Legal Service Life and Number of Water Leaks by Pipe Type ........................ 257
Table 103 NRW Rate of Distribution Branch Pipe and Service Pipe in 2013 ................... 257
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Table 104 Change in NRW Rate by Pipe Type and by Age .............................................. 257
Table 105 Pipe Replacement Cost by Pipe Type and Pipe Size ......................................... 258
Table 106 New Pipe Installation Plan (PVC pipe) ............................................................. 258
Table 107 List of MWA’s Pumps ...................................................................................... 259
Table 108 Accumulated Operation and Maintenance Costs and NRW Rate ..................... 263
Table 109 Accumulated Operation and Maintenance Costs of Pumps and Cost Savings by
Scenario ........................................................................................................................ 266
Table 110 Cost Benefit Ratio and O &M Cost Ratio for Scenarios ................................... 267
Table 111 Length of Expressway by Organization in Charge of Maintenance .................. 269
Table 112 Data of Expressway ..................................................................................... 270
Table 113 Proposed Scenarios to be Compared ................................................................. 272
Table 114 Dimensions to be Used for Examination of Corrective Maintenance Scenarios273
Table 115 Description of Two Preventive Maintenance Scenarios ................................... 276
Table 116 Dimensions to be Used for Examination of Preventive Maintenance Scenarios276
Table 117 Result of Case Study ......................................................................................... 279
Table 118 Basic Policy of Examining Countermeasures ................................................... 282
Table 119 Conditions for Case Study ................................................................................ 283
Table 120 Result of Case Study ......................................................................................... 285
Table 121 Long Life Pavement Main Technologies .......................................................... 285
Table 122 The Number of Participants by Organization.................................................... 286
Table 123 The Number of Participants by Organization.................................................... 292
Table 124 Number of Responses to be Interesting by Topic ............................................. 294
Table 125 Key Messages Important for Infrastructure Management ................................. 295
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Abbreviations
AAR
Association of American Railroads
AASHTO
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI American Concrete Institute
ADB Asian Development Bank
AEC ASEAN Economic Community
AIT
Asian Institute of Technology
AM Asset Management
AMS Asset Management System
ANRE Agency of Natural Resources and Energy (Japan)
ASCE
American Society of Civil Engineers
BMA Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
BMMS Bridge Maintenance and Management System
BMS Bridge Management System
BMTA Bangkok Mass Transit Authority
BOB Bureau of the Budget
BOT
Build, Operate and Transfer
BSI British Standard Institution
CFRP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics
CRD Central Road Database
DBFO Design, Build, Finance and Operate
DBO Design, Build and Operate
DEDE Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency
DfT Department for Transport
DIS Draft International Standard
DMA District Management Area
DOE Department of Energy
DOH Department of Highways
DPT Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning
DRR Department of Rural Roads
DSD Drainage and Sewage Department
EGAT Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ERC Energy Regulation Commission
ERO Electric Reliability Organization
EXAT Expressway Authority of Thailand
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FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FPO Fiscal Policy Office
F/S Feasibility Study
GASB Governmental Accounting Standards Board
GIS Geographic Information System
HA Highways Agency
HDM Highway Design Manual
HERS-ST Highway Economic Requirements System-State Version
HPMS Highway Performance Monitoring System
IAM
Institute of Asset Management
ICE Institute of Civil Engineers
IPE Independent Power Plant
IRI International Roughness Index
ISO International Organization for Standardization
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
LCC Life Cycle Cost
MEA Metropolitan Electricity Authority
METI Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry
MHLW Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan)
MIC Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Japan)
MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (Japan)
MNRE
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
MOE Ministry of Energy
MOI Ministry of Interior
MOF Ministry of Finance
MOT
Ministry of Transport
MRTA Mass Rapid Transit Authority
MWA Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
NBI National Bridge Inventory
NBIS National Bridge Inspection Standards
NESDB National Economic and Social Development Board
NETIS New Technology Information System
NIP National Infrastructure Plan
ODA Official Development Assistance
Ofgem Office of Gas and Electricity Markets
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Ofwat Water Services Regulation Authority
OGC Office of Government Commerce
O&M Operation and Transfer
ORR Office of Rail Regulation
PBMC Performance-Based Maintenance Contracting
PC Pre-stressed Concrete
PDCA Plan Do Check Action
PDMO Public Debt Management Office
PEA Provincial Electricity Authority
PFI Private Finance Initiative
PMMS Pavement Maintenance and Management System
PMS Pavement Management System
PPP Public Private Partnership
PSO Public Service Obligation
PVC polyvinyl chloride
PWA Provincial Waterworks Authority
RMMS Routine Pavement Maintenance and Management System
SAP Session Announcement Protocol
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SEPO State Enterprise Policy Office
SOE State Owned Enterprise
SRT State Railway of Thailand
TAM Transportation Asset Management Guide
TPMS Thailand Pavement Management System
VMS Variable Message Sign
WMA Wastewater Management Authority
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1 Outline of the Survey
Background
1.1
In Japan, infrastructure facilities such as roads, bridges and water supply and sewerage systems
were constructed during the country’s rapid economic growth in the 1960’s. Service life of such
infrastructure facilities is on average several decades, and many facilities have and will have
aged by the 2010’s. Therefore, in Japan, infrastructure facility management to appropriately
maintain and repair facilities, extending their life periods while giving due consideration to
budgetary constraints, has recently been given deep and widespread attention.
In Thailand, the heavy construction period for infrastructure facilities for the purpose of
attracting foreign investment started in the 1980’s. Considering the fact that its history of
infrastructure development follows that of Japan by two decades, we can assume that aging of
infrastructure facilities will become serious concern in Thailand in a decade or two. Moreover,
Thailand is still promoting new infrastructure construction to keep up its economic competence
with the world, which means Thailand may need to take care of both aging infrastructure
facilities and new construction.
Given these circumstances, it is beneficial for Thailand to learn from the lessons that Japan
gained through its trial and error process and apply precautionary measures before their
infrastructure facilities age and cause serious problems, in order to keep their competent
position in the world. To this aim, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) will conduct
this data collection survey study and examine the current situation of infrastructure facilities in
Thailand, their maintenance, and their management especially in light of the issues surrounding
aging infrastructure, in order to develop recommendations on necessary measures to be taken.
Definition of Infrastructure Management
1.2
In this study ‘Infrastructure Management’ is defined as methods and methodologies to
comprehensively plan, manage and operate civil infrastructure systems. Sometimes the term
‘asset management’ is used in similar situations. This term means economically and technically
rational maintenance plans for each facility and equipment and methodologies for their
implementation. Asset management for each facility is based on comprehensive infrastructure
management.
Objectives
1.3
JICA conducts this study with the following three objectives.
1) Introduce the idea of infrastructure facility management, which can extend life periods of
infrastructure facilities by managing their routine preventive care and maintenance.
2) Introduce Japanese technologies and skills for infrastructure facility management.
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3) Examine possibility of Japan’s support using Official Development Assistance (ODA)
and/or application of technologies and expertise from Japanese companies.
Scope
1.4
1.4.1 Target Location
City of Bangkok and neighboring municipalities
1.4.2 Target Organizations
The following organizations will be contacted to obtain necessary information.
1) Office of Prime Minister /Bureau of the Budget
2) Ministry of Finance (Public Debt Management Office, State Enterprise Policy Office)
3) Office of Prime Minister /National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB)
4) Ministry of Interior/ Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning (DPT)
5) Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA)
6) Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (MWA)
7) Provincial Waterworks Authority (PWA)
8) Wastewater Management Authority (WMA)
9) Ministry of Transport/ Department of Highways (DOH)
10) Ministry of Transport/ Department of Rural Roads (DRR)
11) Expressway Authority of Thailand (EXAT)
12) State Railway of Thailand (SRT)
13) Mass Rapid Transit Authority (MRTA)
14) Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT)
15) Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA)
16) Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA)
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1.4.3 Target Facilities
Various public structures can be considered as infrastructure facilities. The target facilities and
areas are selected based on information of the facilities that the target organizations are
responsible for.
Table 1 Target Areas and Facilities
Target areas Target facilities
Administrators
Ministries
Munici-
palities
Public
corporations
Roads
- Highways,
- National roads,
- Local roads
Pavements, bridges,
tunnels
MOI/DPT
MOT/DOH
MOT/DRR
BMA EXAT
Water supply Dams, purification
plants, pipelines,
pumping stations
MOI/DPT MWA, PWA
Sewerage Pipelines, sewerage
treatment plants,
pumping stations
MOI/DPT BMA WMA
Railways
- National railways
- Mass Rapid Transit
Bridges, viaducts,
stripline structures,
fixtures and fittings
SRT MRTA
Electricity Powerhouse,
Substation,
distribution line
MOI/DOE EGAT, MEA
PEA
MOI/DPT Ministry of Interior/ Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning
MOT/DOH Ministry of Transport / Department of Highways
MOT/DRR Ministry of Transport / Department of Rural Roads
EGAT Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand
BMA Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
WMA Wastewater Management Authority
MWA Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
PWA Provincial Waterworks Authority
SRT State Railway of Thailand
MRTA Mass Rapid Transit Authority
MEA Metropolitan Electricity Authority
PEA Provincial Electricity Authority
EXAT Expressway Authority of Thailand
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Implementation Structure
1.5
1.5.1 Study Schedule
1.5.2 Detailed Plan of Study
A. First Study in Japan
A.1 Formulation of the study plan
The Study Team studied all available information, i.e. materials collected by the Study Team
and any other projects. The Study Team will then summarize the basic policy, project
methods, operation itemization and content, and study schedule.
A.2 Collection of information on infrastructure management in Japan through
literature research
The Study Team collected the information on infrastructure management in Japan.
Table 2 Contents of the Initial Study
Items Contents
Information
sources in Japan
Sources of similar
information
in Thailan
d
a. Current situation
of aging
infrastructure
facilities
Current situation of
infrastructure facilities (past
record-keeping, maintenance
skills)
Segregation of duties between
national and local levels
Local
governments
NESDB, BMA
Legal systems
(Regulation on use of private
sector funds etc.)
Ordinance
governing
ministries
Bureau of the
Budget, SEPO
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b
.
N
ational
governments’
approaches
National government
measures and policies
MIC NESDB
MLIT DPT
c. Municipalities’
Approaches
Measures and policies
Projects
Financial plans
Infrastructure
management plan
MWA, PWA, DOH,
DRR, EXAT, SRT,
MRTA, EGAT,
MEA, PEA, BMA
d. Private sector
technologies
and expertise
Products and technologies,
Performance
Overseas businesses Overseas
expansion plans
General
contractors,
Bridge makers,
Consultants etc.
Thai Obayashi,
Research institutions
MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism
MIC Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
A.3 Comparison of infrastructure management approaches and assessment of
strengths of Japanese approaches
The Study Team then put all information collected together and compare situations and
various approaches, such as administrative structures, legal systems, policies, and private
sector’ technologies and expertise in each area between those applied in Japan and in other
developed countries, based on a similar literature research on non-Japanese examples as
described above.
B. First Study in Thailand (June 29 – August 9)
B.1 Explanation of contents of inception report
The Study Team explained the contents of the inception report, study plan, and summary of
findings from the literature research on various aspects related to infrastructure facility
management approaches in Japan and other developed counties.
B.2 Holding of workshop
A workshop was held with the purpose of disseminating and discussing project objectives and
methods for 59 participants from the Thai side (from NESDB, SEPO, BMA, MWA, PWA,
DOH, DRR, EXAT etc.). The Study Team will ask the participants for cooperation in
meeting with Study Team for interviews and providing necessary information and data for
assessment.
B.3 Interview of relevant organizations
In order to learn how each task in the PDCA cycle as shown in Table 3 is implemented in
Thailand, the Study Team visited each organization a few times.
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Table 3 Queries based on PDCA to Administrative Organizations in Thailand
PDCA Data category Sample interview topics
PLAN
Laws, standards,
policies, and plans
Laws, standards, regulations, and rules
governing infrastructure management
Infrastructure management plans in existence,
including facility-specific plans
Infrastructure management policies, related
governmental policies and direction of change
(if any)
Overall management
structure
Whether responsibility is assigned to specific
agencies/organizations for each
infrastructure/facility/equipment
Budget management Maintenance budget categories
DO
Inspection system
Infrastructure/facility/equipment targeted by
inspection-based management – locations and
quantity
Current state of ageing of infrastructure
/facility/equipment, i.e. latest results from
inspections
Detailed inspection procedures and manuals
Year of construction and service life of each
infrastructure/facility/equipment
Repairs, reinforcement
and upgrades
TOR (work description) given when hiring
contractors (if applicable)
Capacity and skill level of agency staff
and/or contractors
CHECK
Management
organization’s structure
Number of staff in each staff category,
personnel cost per staff category
TOR (work description) of each staff category
Recordkeeping of
maintenance and
management data
Quality standards governing recordkeeping
Maintenance costs
Changes over time in maintenance costs
Estimates of tax revenue
Prospects of assistance via subsidies and
foreign aid
ACT
Review and revision of
infrastructure
management plans
Whether plans were ever revised, and if so,
details
Review and revision of
laws and standards
governing planning
Whether laws and standards were ever
revised, and if so, details
Review and revision of
management structure
Opinion of interviewee(s) on what needs to be
improved and revised within current
management structure
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Table 4 Schedule of Visit for Interview
C. Second Study in Japan
C.1 Estimation of infrastructure management costs
The Study Team selected water supply and traffic and transportation as high priority areas
because their focus is shifting from new construction to maintenance and repair. Three case
studies are developed to examine measures to minimize life cycle cost (LCC) and extend life
of infrastructure facilities and to estimate the impact of infrastructure management.
1) Comparison of the operation and maintenance cost based on the current pipe replacement
plan and the suggested scenarios to select pipes for replacement to minimize LCC.
2) Comparison of LCCs for corrective maintenance and preventive maintenance for repair of
road concrete structures
3) Comparison of LCCs if road pavement based on the current design standard and the
scenario to double the design year.
# AM PM
16/29SuTYO
→→
BKK
26/30Mo JICA Thailand
3 7/1 Tu Kasetsat University
4 7/2 We Thainishimatsu Construction Co.,Ltd.
5 7/3 Th Burapha University Chularongkorn Univ.
67/4FrBMA
Engineering Institute of Thailand
77/5Sa
87/6Su
9 7/7 Mo 1000 Thai obayashi JICA
Tha ila nd Chief Re p.
10 7/8 Tu
Chulalongkorn University
Prof.Wisanu Subsompon
AIT, Dr.Worsak
11 7/9 We MWA JICA Thailand
12 7/10 Th DOH EXAT
13 7/11 Fr Thai National Holiday
14 7/12 Sa
15 7/13 Su
16 7/14 Mo Thai National Holiday
17 7/15 Tu SRT
18 7/16 We
1000 Workshop
19 7/17 Th NESDB, MWA
20 7/18 Fr DRR, Kansai Koji Survey Co.Ltd. EGAT, PWA
21 7/19 Sa
22 7/20 Su
23 7/21 Mo AIT Prof.Yamamoto
24 7/22 Tu DOH bridge PEA
25 7/23 We MRTA, DPT
26 7/24 Th DPT MWA, SRT, SEPO
27 7/25 Fr PWA
28 7/26 Sa
29 7/27 Su
30 7/28 Mo
31 7/29 Tu BMA Public Works/Sewerage PWA (Budget), SRT, JICA
32 7/30 We JICA MRI, NTTdata, PEA MEA
33 7/31 Th Public Debt Management Office
34 8/1 Fr DRR (Budget)
35 8/2 Sa
36 8/3 Su
37 8/4 Mo SEPO
38 8/5 Tu Tokyo Metropolitan Expresswa
y
39 8/6 We BMA Public Works, Budget BMA Drainage
40 8/7 Th DOH Branch 11 MWA Branch, JICA
41 8/8 Fr BMA Budget, DRR Branc
h
BKK
→
42 8/9 Sa
→
TYO
mm/dd
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D. Second Study in Thailand (September 23 – October 23)
D.1 Development of recommendations on measures to be taken for
infrastructure facility management
The Study Team will grasp the expressed and potential needs of the relevant administrative
organizations in charge of planning and implementation of infrastructure facility management
in the priority areas, and develop practical measures and step by step plans that takes into
consideration the issues and barriers to be solved. The study schedule will be developed
based on the results of the previous study phases.
Table 5 Possible Recommendations of Measures to be Taken (Tentative)
Perspective Possible recommendations (Tentative)
Financial sourcing
Find financial sources such as tax revenue, reserve fund,
subsidies, financial aid from foreign source
Find ways of private sector involvement such as PPP
and PFI
Management policy
and needs
Select priority facilities based on practical
considerations and required investment
Management plan and
measures
Utilize database and IT technologies in management
Review current tasks and workflow
Involve citizens for daily care
Review the total cost in life cycle for developing
measures to reduce the total cost
Organization structure
and skills
Make plans for training in Japan and Thailand
Review the level of administration
Support from Japan
Introduce new service and technologies by private
companies
Apply the cost reduction activities applied in Japan
Utilize JICA’s ODA scheme
The impact of infrastructure management is calculated based on discussions with the target
organizations about presumptions and measures proposed in the case studies. The study
schedule is shown below.
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Table 6 2
nd
Study Schedule
D.2 Hold a seminar
A seminar will be held to report the study results, to obtain reactions from the various
stakeholders and to discuss the feasibility of recommended measures and plans for improving
the management of infrastructure facilities.
E. Final Report
The results of the study and suggestions in the priority areas will be integrated into a final
report.
Study Team Members
1.6
The Study Team is composed of five members who are working in the following capacities.
Capacity Name
Team leader
Akira DOI
Deputy team leader & financial planning expert Junko TOMITA
Infrastructure management planning expert
Hideo SATO
Water supply planning expert
Kenji SHINODA
Traffic and transportation planning expert
Makoto ASHINO
# AM PM
19/23Tu
TYO
→
BK
K
29/24We
39/25Th
49/26Fr
DOH
59/27Sa
69/28Su
79/29Mo
MW
A
89/30Tu
910/1We
10 10/2 Th
MRTA
11 10/3 Fr
DOH
12 10/4 Sa
13 10/5 Su
14 10/6 Mo
BMA
(
PW & SEWERAGE
)
JICA Courtes
y
Cal
l
15 10/7 Tu
SEPO
16 10/8 We
Assistant Governor
,
Plannin
g
De
p
t. Bud
g
et EXAT
17 10/9 Th
EGAT MEA
,
PW
A
18 10/10 Fr
PEA Director
,
Maintenance DTC
19 10/11 Sa
20 10/12 Su
21 10/13 Mo
PDMO
22 10/14 Tu
BB De
p
ut
y
Director BMA Sewera
g
e
23 10/15 We
WMA
,
DOH SRT
,
EXAT
24 10/16 Th
NESDB Advisor on Polic
y
and Plannin
g,
Dr.Worsak AIT
,
DOH
25 10/17 Fr
JICA TV conference
,
SEPO Inter
p
rete
r
26 10/18 Sa
27 10/19 Su
28 10/20 Mo
29 10/21 Tu
1000-1230 Seminar
JICA
30 10/22 We
BK
K
→
31 10/23 T
h
→
TYO
mm/dd
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2 Efforts for Infrastructure Management in
Japan
Efforts of Central Government
2.1
The target sectors of this survey are the road, railway, sewerage, waterworks and electricity
sectors. In Japan, the authorities competent in these sectors are the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) (for the road, railway and sewerage sectors), the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) (for the waterworks sector) and the Agency
for Natural Resources and Energy, an extra-ministerial bureau of the Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry (for the electricity sector).
As the implementing organizations in the railway and electricity sectors are private companies,
each of them is taking its own measures against deterioration of infrastructure. The roles of the
competent authorities in these sectors are limited to preparation of laws and standards and
supervision of the service providers.
In the waterworks sector, MHLW has prepared long-term guidelines for local governments
which provide water supply services. In the guidelines, the ministry has urged them to have
goals to be achieved in the future and use the asset management method to improve the capacity
of water supply facilities to the level at which they can supply safe water in an easily accessible
way and ensure stable supply of water at the time of disaster under a situation where large-scale
replacement of facilities are needed. A similar approach was adopted later in the sewerage
sector. MLIT prepared plans to extend the life of all the infrastructure facilities under its
jurisdiction in 2013.
In this chapter, the current state of infrastructure facilities is explained at first and, then, the
measures taken against their deterioration are described in chronological order.
2.1.1 Background for the Policy for the Infrastructure Development
(1) Current State of Infrastructure Facilities
Many of the existing infrastructure facilities in Japan were constructed in the period of rapid
economic growth in the 1960’s and the 1970’s. Seventy percent of the existing bridges in
Japan were constructed in these two decades.
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Figure 1 Proportion of Bridges by Decade of Construction in OECD Member Countries
Source: Asset Management in Construction
As a natural consequence, a large number of bridges are expected to become deteriorated over
time. In fact, deterioration of bridges is already a problem. While the proportion of bridges
which had been used for 50 years and longer was 6% in 1991, it had doubled to 12% by 2011.
The figure is expected to reach 60% in 2051.
Figure 2 Change in the Number of Road Bridges (15 m or longer) Used for More or Less
than 50 Years in Japan (1991-2051)
Source: Social Capital Asset Management
In the waterworks sector, deterioration of water supply pipes is progressing as the total length
and the proportion of those pipes installed at least 40 years ago have both been on a steady
increase.
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Figure 3 Changes in the Total Length of Water Supply Pipelines and the Proportion of
Pipes Installed at Least 40 Years Ago
Source: Water Supply Hot News, Vol. 383 (2014)
In fact, the deterioration of infrastructure facilities has already caused many accidents. For
example, old bridges have collapsed because of the loss of the bearing capacity of their
foundations and degradation of underground pipes has been causing pipes to burst. There was
a railway accident in Hokkaido in 2011 in which failure to identify a train wheel requiring repair
caused the derailment of an express train. There was also a shocking road accident in the
Sasago Tunnel in December 2012 in which the ceiling boards of the tunnel, which was
constructed in December 1977, 35 years before the accident, collapsed and killed nine people.
This accident has made the general public aware of the current state of the deteriorating
infrastructure facilities and the necessity for urgent countermeasures.
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Figure 4 Accidents Caused by Deterioration of a Bridge (above left), a Railway (above
right), a Tunnel (below left) and a Water Supply Pipe (below right)
(2) Forecast of the Cost and Prospect for the Financial Resources for the Replacement
of Infrastructure in Future
According to long-term projections of Japanese finances, it is anticipated that expenditures
relating to healthcare and welfare will increase in accordance with the progress of aging and
revenues will decrease due to the decline of population. Consequently, it is expected that top
priority will be given to measures to cope with the declining birthrate and aging population and
costs of such measures will rise accordingly, and inevitably, the proportion of investment
allocated to maintain the current infrastructure will decrease.
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Figure 5 Trends of Social Security Expenses and Public Works Expenses
Source: Japan Federation of Construction Contractors Website
In the case of Japan, as the infrastructure construction has followed a pyramid-like pattern, there
is concern that the future trend of costs required for replacement will also be pyramid-like,
which means that the cost may rise sharply at a certain point in time. However, it will be
almost impossible to bear the cost at the peak.
(3) Basic Policy for the Infrastructure Development
Under such circumstances, the number of infrastructure facilities to be replaced shall have to be
reduced to an appropriate level according to the availability of financial resources at that point
in time. Such reduction shall require administrators of the facilities to conduct a study on the
possibility of terminating their use or downsizing their capacity with the evaluation of the
necessity of each facility and to prepare measures for repairing and replacing the facility in
stages over a long period of time, instead of as a large-scale repair work.
As such, efforts have been made to extend the life of the infrastructure. More specifically, the
central government has been working to promote comprehensive and systematic management of
the infrastructure facilities, reduction of maintenance cost and leveling of cost required during
the replacement boom.
Social Security Expense
Public Works Ex
p
ense
(Billion yen)
(FY)
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Figure 6 Image of Maintenance Cost Equalization
Conventionally, replacement of infrastructure facilities was carried out mainly based on the
concept of corrective maintenance, that is, to take action only after an accident or a functional
failure has occurred. However, since occurrence of an accident or a breakdown will make a
great impact on daily life and social activities, it is important to carry out preventive
maintenance to prevent the occurrence of such incidents. For example, the “Guideline for
Maintenance and Operation in Sewerage Systems” promotes preventive maintenance, as it can
reduce the incidence of breakdown and closure to about 1/3, failures caused by manhole cover
to about 1/3 to 1/7, and accidents involving ground subsidence to about 1/3.
1
Since it is easy to
estimate the cost of such systematic maintenance and, thus, plan the budget required for it, it
will be necessary to include the planning of such budget in the plan.
1
Japan Sewage Works Association
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2.1.2 Introduction of Infrastructure Management
In this way, fewer babies are born and the population ages and starts to decrease, the tax
revenues are also decreasing, which makes it difficult to secure budget for new construction and
maintenance of infrastructure facilities. At the same time, as composition and distribution of
population and the social needs change, some existing infrastructure facilities such as
elementary schools become no longer needed and the need for new infrastructure facilities
arises. Such needs differ according to situation and environment of municipalities.
Therefore, with limited financial resources, infrastructure management measures to holistically
manage various infrastructure facilities arise for national government and municipalities to
maintain necessary facilities in a good condition.
Infrastructure management requires policy making and planning to balance all infrastructure
facilities in an optimal way. Implementation of infrastructure management includes asset
management of a sector and traditional maintenance of facilities. This system is illustrated in
Figure 7.
( ) example
Figure 7 Infrastructure Management System
Infrastructure management was developed as a result of transition from engineering
maintenance management of individual facilities, then asset management to infrastructure
management. In asset management organizations competent in one sector such as water
supply and electricity recognize all facilities producing profit as assets and take good care of
them to keep their value efficiently with a long-term perspective. Asset management started to
be featured by Japan Society of Civil Engineers in about 2000 and is now widely used among
implementing organizations. This section describes the transition from introduction of asset
management to infrastructure management in a chronological order, from asset management of
Infrastructure Management
Asset
Management
(Water Supply Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Pipelines)
Maintenance
management
(Purification
facilities)
Maintenance
management
(Pumping
stations)
Asset
Management
(Road Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Pavement)
Maintenance
management
(Bridges)
Maintenance
management
(Safety facilities)
Asset
Management
(Railway Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Civil
engineering)
Maintenance
management
(Telecommunication)
Maintenance
management
(Trains)
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water supply sector, sewerage sector, and infrastructure management of Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism.
2.1.3 Efforts on Waterworks System
(1) Water Supply Vision
With the arrival of the 21st century, the need for large-scale replacement of water supply
facilities is peaking with the progressing deterioration of those constructed rapidly and on a
large scale in Japan’s period of rapid economic growth. The systematic replacement of the
water supply facilities is beginning to be recognized as the most important and urgent issue to
be addressed by all the water service providers in order to hand over these valuable assets to the
next generation in a sound state. Therefore, in June 2004, the Ministry of Health, Labour and
Welfare (MHLW) developed the “Water Supply Vision”, which collectively indicates policy
priorities concerning the water supply system in the future as well as specific policies, measures
and roadmap to tackle them.
The basic concept of this vision is a “Water supply system that strives to be a leading player in
the world”. The vision outlines five principles: security (guarantee of the supply of safe and
palatable water), stability (sufficient measures against disaster), sustainability (reinforcement of
the foundation for the operation of water services), environment (upgrading of measures for
environmental protection and energy saving) and globalization (contribution to the world
through international cooperation), as long-term policy objectives and defines “systematic
development and replacement of facilities while maintaining the fiscal balance in the medium-
to long-term” as one of the policy objectives in the reinforcement of the foundation for the
operation of water services.
(2) Regional Waterworks Vision
After the publication of the Water Supply Vision, MHLW issued a notice entitled “The
Guidelines for the Preparation of Regional Waterworks Vision” in October 2005. In the
notice, the ministry recommended water service providers and prefectural governments to
analyze the current state of their water services, evaluate their prospects in ten years’ time, draw
images of the ideal water services in future and prepare measures to achieve the ideal in the
form of Regional Waterworks Visions.
(3) Guidelines on Asset Management in Water Utility
Although the Water Vision has a provision that water service providers should take measures to
replace their facilities and secure funds for the replacement, they were unable to fulfill the
provision. In order to improve the situation, the Water Supply Vision was revised and the
introduction of the asset management method was added as a priority issue to the revised vision,
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which was published in July 2008. This addition was based on the recognition that
implementation of asset management, a system for efficient and effective management and
operation of water supply facilities throughout their entire life cycle with a long-term
perspective, by each water service provider was essential for realization of sustainable
waterworks services with systematic replacement and earthquake-proofing of the facilities on
the basis of a medium- to long-term forecast of fiscal balance.
Unlike other public infrastructure, water supply infrastructure has no alternatives. As such,
great impact will be made on society in the event of water leakage or other accidents. Also,
according to the beneficiary-to-pay principle, fees can be collected from users, which means
that financial resources for the implementation of asset management can be secured.
Figure 8 Asset Management Practice Cycle
2
MHLW issued “The Guidelines for Asset Management in Water Utility” in July 2008 for the
implementation of the asset management. The guidelines recommend all water service
providers to implement the asset management with full understanding of its importance and
request each of them to prepare a medium- to long-term plan for facility replacement with
financial backing and prefectural governments to play an active role in dissemination and
promotion of the asset management to water service providers and provide them with guidance
and advice on its implementation.
The guidelines provide the points mentioned below as those requiring attention in the
preparation of the replacement plans for the achievement of “defining ideal waterworks services
in future and incorporating the problems in and measures for the realization of the ideal in a
Regional Waterworks Vision” and “raising awareness of stakeholders on the necessity of the
replacement and earthquake-proofing projects with publicity activities for sharing information
2
Source: Guidelines on Asset Management in Water Utility Outline
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with them.”
3
Priority on the implementation
The guidelines provide a simple method which enables the asset management just by entering
such data as quantities of facilities in a prepared form. This method allows a study on
macro-management while asset data are being compiled. The accuracy of the management is
to be improved by analyzing the results in stages while implementing asset management.
Importance of an organization-wide approach
Activities are to be implemented in a controlled way under the leadership of waterworks
technical administrators while the knowledge of the problems and countermeasures are
shared throughout the entire organization.
Establishment of a long-term perspective
The period of the analysis is to be at least 30 years in principle and can be more than 40
years. The result of the analysis is to be used for setting an objective to be achieved in ten
years’ time with the backcasting
4
. The set objective and measures to achieve it are to be
incorporated in a Regional Waterworks Vision to establish an organic link between the vision
and the asset management.
Integration of technical bases and financial backing
A replacement and earthquake-proofing plan is to be prepared with technical bases and
financial backing. The prepared plan is to be used as information to obtain understanding of
the project of the stakeholders in such activities as explanation of the necessity of the
investment in the facility replacement and effects of the investment.
Figure 9 Feedback to the Reinforcement of the Foundation of Operation and the Regional
Waterworks Vision
Source: “The Guidelines for Asset Management in Water Utility”, MHLW
3
“Guidelines on Asset Management in Water Utility” MHLW Website
4
A method to identify a way to achieve an objective without being affected by presumed social problems
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By having each water utility practice asset management, albeit in a simplified manner, it aims to
manage and operate waterworks assets from medium- to long-term perspectives and to
continuously improve the level of asset management. At the same time, it also aims at
enabling steady investment in the replacement of waterworks facilities by creation of
replacement demand projection with secure financial resources.
(4) New Water Supply Vision
Since the preparation of the “Water Supply Vision,” the environment affecting the water sector
has changed significantly. For example, the population of Japan has been on the decline since
it peaked in 2010 and it has become certain that the population will continue to decrease in
future. The Great East Japan Earthquake caused damage to water supply facilities in a wide
area. Because of the significant changes, the Water Supply Vision was reviewed
comprehensively and the New Water Supply Vision was published in March 2013. The new
vision mentions the shift from measures for the extension of water supply services to those
based on the assumption that the water demand shall decrease in future and puts emphasis on
measures for disaster and crisis management. The New Water Supply Vision clearly describes
ideal water supply services 50 years and 100 years from now with a clear vision of the society
in the future and provides issues to be addressed and measures to be taken immediately to
realize the ideal service.
(5) Water Service Visions and Prefectural Waterworks Visions
Following the publication of the New Water Supply Vision, MLHW has recommended water
service providers and prefectural governments to prepare Water Service Visions and Prefectural
Waterworks Visions, respectively, since March 2014 to clearly define the scopes of works of
them and encourage them to take measures compliant with the new vision. A “Prefectural
Waterworks Vision” is a comprehensive vision for wide-area waterworks services to be
prepared through appropriate review by a prefectural government of its Master Plan for
Development of Waterworks with “Water Service Visions” prepared by water service providers
taken into consideration.
The new vision assumes the five subjects mentioned below as the basic subjects to be
mentioned in Water Service Visions. It provides that implementation of “asset management” is
essential in the implementation of the policy.
(i) Evaluation of the state of the current water services and identification of problems in
them
(ii) Environment for the provision of water services in future
(iii) Setting of ideal regional water services and objectives
(iv) Measures to facilitate the achievement of the objectives
(v) Analysis method and follow-up activities
With this recommendation, the Regional Waterworks Vision provided in the notice issued in
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2005 was replaced by the above-mentioned Water Service Visions and Prefectural Waterworks
Visions. Since then, the term has been used to refer to both of the two new visions.
As of October 2014, 793 and 53 Water Service Visions had been prepared by water service
providers and water supply providers, respectively. These visions cover 91% and 95% of the
total populations served by water service providers and water supply providers, respectively.
Ten Prefectural Waterworks Visions had been prepared by the administrative departments
supervising waterworks of prefectural governments by October 2014
5
.
2.1.4 Efforts on Sewerage System
(1) Sewerage Vision 2100
Sewerage system development approached its peak 15 to 20 years later than water supply
system development. Also, as the legal service life of sewerage pipeline facilities is designated
as 50 years, which is longer than that of water pipeline facilities (40 years), it is expected that
large-scale replacement demands will arise around 2025.
However, road subsidence of varying scales caused by aging pipeline facilities, etc. frequently
occurs every year. About 3,900 cases of road subsidence occurred in fiscal 2012.
Figure 10 Trends of Length of Pipelines Constructed Each Year and Incidence of Road
Subsidence
Source: MLIT Website “Sewerage System – Planned Reconstruction and Maintenance”
Under such circumstances, the “Sewerage Vision 2100” was published in September 2005 in a
way similar to the “Water Supply Visions.” In the “Sewerage Vision 2100,” MLIT provides
guidelines for the development and maintenance of sewerage services with the vision for the
future 100 years from now taken into consideration and practical measures to realize the vision.
With “path of recycling” as the basic concept, this vision declares that transition from the 20th
5
Guidelines for the preparation of “Water Service Vision,” MHLW Website
* Legal service life of sewerage
p
ipelines: 50 years
More pipes get
older than 50
y
ears
Len
g
th of
p
i
p
elines constructed each
y
ear Incidence of road subsidence
A
b
out 450
,
000 km
3,900 in 2013
Length of pipelines per constructed
year (Thousand km)
A
ccumulated length of pipelines
(10 Thousand km)
Incidence of (road subsidence
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
2011
10,000km
is 50 yrs old
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
201
2
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century-type sewerage system focused on diffusion and expansion to the 21st century-type
sewerage system creating sound water cycle and resource cycle should be aimed at in order to
establish sustainable recycling-oriented society. Also, the vision lists “path of water”, “path of
resources” and “facility regeneration” as basic approaches to realize the “path of recycling”, and
with respect to “facility regeneration”, it states that sewerage systems that meet new social
needs (sustainable sewerage system) should be realized by sustaining efforts for the securement
of safety and advancement of functions by making an effective use of existing facilities through
asset management, etc.
6
(2) New Sewerage Vision
Eight years have passed since the preparation of the Sewerage Vision 2100. In this eight-year
period, factors such as the Great East Japan Earthquake, tight financial conditions and a
declining population have changed the socio-economic conditions in Japan and abroad, times
have changed completely from the era of promotion of development to that of maintenance and
restrictions on the service provision including deterioration of facilities and operating systems
have increased, while new technologies have been developed for the diversification of the
methods of service provision including PPP/PFI and rapid development of ICT.
Against this background, MLIT prepared the “New Sewerage Vision” in July 2013 and
mentioned the missions of the sewerage services, a long-term vision and a medium-term plan
for the achievement of the vision in the new vision. The ministry presented the objectives to
be achieved in the next ten or so years and practical measures to achieve them in the
medium-term plan. The “New Sewerage Vision” has two key concepts; “maintenance” and
“evolution” of “sewerage system as the path of recycling”. With respect to “maintenance”,
this vision includes the establishment of sustainable and integrated management of people,
things and money (asset management) as an item for promotion, and it calls for drastic
reexamination of conventional legal and budgetary systems, regulations, standards and
operational systems centered on the promotion of construction and development as well as
transition to asset management that aims to optimize facility management through integrated
management of management resources, namely, people, things and money in order to establish
the project management system that is suited to the times.
6
MLIT Website
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Figure 11 Composition of New Sewerage Vision
Source: New Sewerage Vision (Outline)
2.1.5 Efforts for Railway Operators by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transportation (MLIT)
MLIT began to take practical measures to facilitate extension of life of infrastructure facilities
as measures against its deterioration in 2006. While the ministry was taking such measures,
the ceiling boards in the Sasago Tunnel collapsed in December 2012. This accident led to
spread of the awareness of the necessity of measures against the deterioration of infrastructure
in Japanese society and of the necessity of implementing comprehensive countermeasures.
Facilities whose life is to be extended include those for which organizations and systems for
their operation have been established by MLIT and managed either directly by MLIT such as
national roads or by local governments such as prefectural roads. Therefore, MLIT requested
the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC) to urge local governments to
implement measures to extend the life of facilities as their competent authority, while MLIT
was taking the measures mentioned above.
Table 7 Measures Relative to Infrastructure Management Taken by MLIT and MIC in
Recent Years
Date Name of Measure Implementing body Purpose
Dec. 20,
2006
Creation of the
Program for the
Development of
Repair Plan for
Infrastructure Life
Extension
Road Bureau, MLIT A program was set up to subsidize local
governments in developing the repair plans of
road bridges of no less than 15m in length,
thereby extending the life of bridges managed
by local governments and reducing the repair
and replacement costs of bridges. It is expected
that this program will help in ensuring the
safety and reliability of road networks.
Dec. 2,
2012
Sasago Tunnel Ceiling Panel Collapse Accident
Concrete ceiling panels fell over a section of about 130m in the Tokyo-bound Sasago Tunnel on
the Chuo Expressway. Three passenger cars driving in the tunnel were crushed, resulting in the
death of 9 people and major/minor injury of 2 people.
With this accident as a trigger, the importance of infrastructure maintenance was
re-appreciated.
Jan. 21, Establishment of MLIT An expert committee for the examination of
New water supply vision: Maturation of Path of recycling
Sustain Path of recycling
Establish asset management
Evolve Path of recycling
Evolution
Sustainability
Time
Establish crisis management
Improve presence and residents’
understanding
Improve presence and residents’
understanding
Sound water environment
Hub to collect and supply water,
resource and energ
y
Optimization of sewerage treatment
Efficient rain water management
Contribution to solve global water,
sanitation and environment problems
Competitive technology development
Global
contribution
New value
creation
Recycle
society
creation
Resistant
society
development
Expand area of contribution
Contribute to develop sustainable society
Appropriate
management
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Date Name of Measure Implementing body Purpose
2013
the Conference on
Measures to Control
the Aging of Social
Capital
measures required for strategic maintenance
and replacement of social capital and steady
implementation of such measures.
June 14,
2013
Basic Policies for
Economic and
Fiscal Management
and Reform –
Ending Deflation
and Revitalizing the
Economy –
Cabinet Office To facilitate the involvement of private sector
and to shift the focus from “building new
infrastructure” to “using existing infrastructure
wisely”, directives were indicated to promote
the utilization of the PPP/PFI in projects that
the use of private sector is expected to improve
the efficiency of infrastructure management and
replacement, improve the quality of services
and reduce the financial burden.
Nov. 29,
2013
Basic Plan for
Extending Life of
Infrastructure
Facilities
Liaison Conference
of Relevant
Ministries and
Agencies Concerning
the Promotion of
Measures to Control
the Aging of
Infrastructure
(Secretariat: MLIT)
Based on the recognition of the importance of
focusing on “using wisely”, directions for the
reduction of mid- and long-term total
maintenance cost, equalization of budget and
ensuring the competitiveness of the
maintenance industry were indicated. A
roadmap up to 2030 is shown to call for the
creation of “life extension plan of each
individual facility”, utilizing the resources of
the private sector.
Apr. 22,
2014
Promotion of
Comprehensive and
Planned
Management of
Public Facilities
Ministry of Internal
Affairs and
Communications
(MIC)
MIC has instructed local governments to
develop management policies and plans for all
the public facilities under their jurisdiction.
This project subsidizes local governments to
facilitate the planning of replacement,
abolition/integration, extension of the service
life of public facilities in accordance with the
changes in the utilization demands in the future.
This project aims to reduce and spread the
financial burden of local governments, enabling
them to relocate public facilities by developing
such plans.
May 21,
2014
Action Plan to
Extend Life of
Infrastructure
Facilities
MLIT This is a concrete plan that clearly defines the
directions of medium- to long-term initiatives
concerning the maintenance and replacement of
all infrastructures under the management or
jurisdiction of MLIT. It also includes the
“clarification of responsibilities” by developing
laws and regulations necessary to realize the
“action plan”.
(1) Conference on Measures against Aging of Social Capital
This conference was set up in January 2013 as an expert committee “Conference on Measures
against Aging of Social Capital” chaired by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation
and Tourism for the examination and steady implementation of measures to promote strategic
maintenance and replacement of social capital.
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Through the activities of this conference which has met four times to date, the “Basic Plan for
Extending the Life of Infrastructure” was drafted with the Liaison Conference of Relevant
Ministries and Agencies, including MLIT and the Cabinet Office, as the implementation body,
aiming to achieve a smooth turnaround in approaches from the conventional symptomatic repair
and replacement to preventive repair and replacement based on the life extension plan.
7
(2) Basic Plan for Life Extension
In November 2013, MLIT set up the “Basic Plan to Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities” to
develop measures to control the aging of the infrastructures of the government as a whole. In
order to extend the life of all infrastructure facilities across the country, this basic plan presents
directives for authorities responsible for the infrastructure to implement collective and planned
infrastructure management under the initiative of MLIT. The plan provides an ideal of
establishing sustainable infrastructure management with the establishment of a maintenance
cycle, reduction in the total cost and the spreading of budget and creating competitiveness in the
maintenance industry as a strategy. It also provides a road map to achieve the ideal.
In the basic plan, MLIT requests itself and local governments which are responsible for
infrastructure facilities to prepare overall action plans and action plans for individual facilities
for the achievement of the “ideal.” The basic plan stipulates that an action plan shall have
clear descriptions on the eight subjects: 1) inspection and diagnosis/repair and replacement, 2)
establishment of standards, 3) development and use of information infrastructure, 4) preparation
of facility-specific plans, 5) development and application of new technologies, 6) budgetary
management, 7) construction of systems, and 8) establishment of laws and regulations for the
achievement of the ideal.
Figure 12 System of Basic Plan to Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities Promoted by
MLIT
On the other hand, municipalities have started to consider developing the Comprehensive Public
Facility Management Plan for municipalities’ infrastructure facilities, and plan to have them
completed by 2017.
7
MLIT Comprehensive Policies: Aging of Social Capital website
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(3) Action Plan to Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities
MLIT prepared measures which it would take both as a supervisor who is to construct systems
and structures for the maintenance of infrastructure and as an administrator who is to be
engaged in practical activities for the maintenance of infrastructure under its jurisdiction in the
seven-year period up to 2020 in accordance with the Basic Plan for Extending Life of
Infrastructure Facilities and compiled these measures in the Action Plan. MLIT also
conducted a study on the strategies and activities for the maintenance of infrastructure using the
results of the analysis of the current state of and problems in each of the eight subjects described
in the basic policy and prepared a concrete implementation schedule in accordance with the road
map in the basic plan.
Action Plan to Extend Life of Infrastructure Facilities describes activities in twelve sectors.
The practical measures described in the plan for the sectors included in this survey among the
12 sectors are as follows:
a. Roads
Close visual inspection once in five years was required by the new Ordinance of the
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport for about 700,000 bridges, 10,000
tunnels and so on. (promulgated in March and enforced in July 2014)
For inspection and replacement of road surfaces and light poles, it is considered to set
appropriate replacement periods based on degradation over time.
For bridges across expressways and emergency transportation roads, inspection
priorities should be set based on importance and soundness.
Scheduled inspection and diagnosis, repair and replacement should be kept for
MLIT’s bridges.
Local municipalities are in charge of many facilities and lack budget, personnel and
skills. MLIT will provide necessary support for their inspection and diagnosis, repair
and replacement.
b. Sewerage
MLIT will continue technical and financial support for local municipalities to ensure
inspections, surveys and renovation of sewerage facilities.
c. Railways
MLIT will continue technical and financial assistance and provide training for railway
operator to ensure maintenance of railway facilities based on technical standards given
in the ministerial ordinance.
d. Expressways
MLIT will provide technical assistance to expressway operators so that they can
ensure appropriate inspections and replacement.
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(4) Comprehensive Public Facility Management Plans of Local Governments
Local governments in the entire country have begun the preparation of comprehensive public
facility management plans for the next ten years in accordance with the notice of MIC,
“Promotion of Comprehensive and Planned Management of Public Facilities,” issued in April
2014. The details of the plans are described in the following section. The notice also provides
provision of subsidies of up to 50% of the expenses for the preparation of the management plans
as a financial measure for local governments and establishment of a special measure for the
issuance of local government bonds for the removal of infrastructure facilities.
Meanwhile, MLIT established a committee which includes officials responsible for
infrastructure management of prefectural and municipal governments in July 2014 to support
preparation of plans for extending life of public structures by local governments. The
committee is expected to prepare the policies for the preparation of the plans by May 2015.
(5) Facility-Specific Plan
MIC has requested local governments to prepare a “Facility-Specific Plan” as a plan for the
extension of the life of each facility by fiscal 2016. The committee mentioned above is
expected to establish a basic concept for the preparation of such plans and use it to prepare a
reference material which all local governments can use in the preparation of such plans in
accordance with the specific conditions in the areas under their jurisdiction. MLIT has
announced in the action plan mentioned in (3) above that it will provide technical assistance to
administrators of individual facilities in keeping appropriate maintenance records for the
preparation of the facility-specific plans.
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Efforts of Local Governments
2.2
In this section, examples of infrastructure management lead by local governments are described,
namely, the contents of the Comprehensive Public Facility Management Plans which are
required to be detailed in the plans and the cases considered by MIC as Facility-Specific Plans
and cases where management of all the infrastructure facilities in a certain sector is outsourced
as a whole in an attempt to reduce the cost by improving cost-efficiency.
2.2.1 Comprehensive Public Facility Management Plan
In accordance with the policies of extending life of infrastructure facilities of MLIT and MIC,
local governments are preparing for the preparation of Comprehensive Public Facility
Management Plans for extending life of infrastructure facilities. Some local governments had
prepared plans for the repair of certain types of infrastructure facilities such as bridges for the
extension of their life. Such local governments are conducting studies to elucidate the current
states of the other types of infrastructure facilities (including tunnels, pavement and sewerage).
The components of a Comprehensive Public Facility Management Plan are mentioned below.
1. Current condition of retained facilities
Objectively grasp and analyze the current conditions and issues of all public facilities, etc.
Conditions of public facilities, etc.
Future projection of population
Estimation of medium- to long-term expenses and financial resources relative to the
maintenance and replacement
2. Basic policy concerning the management of entire facility
Range of plan: 10 years or longer
Description of establishment of a structure to involve all personnel within the
government and information sharing
Description of the basic policy based on the analysis of current condition
Description of the methods of evaluating the progress of the plan and publishing the
results
It is considered that comprehensive and systematic management of public facilities is essential
for the implementation of urban planning which is consistent with the current state of local
communities and that it also contributes to the establishment of national resilience which has
been promoted recently by the Cabinet Secretariat.
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Figure 13 Image of Promotion of Measures to Control Aging Based on Comprehensive
Public Facility Management Plan
In fact, approx. 15 basic policies, which were equivalent to the Comprehensive Public Facility
Management Plans had been established by certain local governments before the MIC issued the
notice concerned. A survey conducted by MIC in May 2014 after the issuance of the notice
revealed that approx. 25% of local governments were planning to complete the preparation of
the policies or plans by the end of fiscal 2014.
2.2.2 Introduction of Comprehensive Outsourcing of Management
Fuchu City in Tokyo published “The White Paper on the Infrastructure Management in Fuchu
City” in October 2012. In the white paper, the city described the current state of the roads,
bridges, parks, sewerage and facilities associated with them managed by the city and the cost
required for continuing to maintain their capacities and functions at the current levels. After
the publication of the white paper, the city conducted a study to identify problems in the current
infrastructure management, to find a sustainable and feasible plan for the infrastructure
management and to estimate the amount of the cost saving achieved by the adoption of the new
plan. The city presented a policy for the infrastructure management in future based on the
result of the study in “The Fuchu City Infrastructure Management Plan,” which was published
in January 2013. Fuchu Infrastructure Management Plan explains management policies based
on the current situation as outlined in the White Paper. The target period is 40 years.
In the study, the cost of managing the city’s infrastructure was divided into maintenance cost
and repair/replacement cost and the maintenance cost required for maintaining the current levels
of infrastructure
8
and the amount of budget actually spent on the maintenance of infrastructure
were compared. As the comparison revealed that the city did not have financial resources to
8
To maintain the infrastructure at the current levels does not mean to take no measures. Instead, it means to take
measures to prevent deterioration and maintain the capacities and functions at the current levels.
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maintain the infrastructure facilities at the current levels, the city conducted a study to establish
a feasible strategy for cost-reduction such as improvement of cost-efficiency of outsourcing and
life-cycle cost and to identify measures to increase revenue.
Table 8 Fuchu Infrastructure Management Plan
Items Aims Measures
Overall Policies Increased income
Sustainable finance
Streamlining
Adequate service fees
Allocation of infrastructure usage fees
for maintenance
Introduction of sponsorship
Introduction of naming rights
9
Maintenance costs Cost reduction by review of
business
Streamlining of operations
Comprehensive outsourcing of
management
Increased use of IT
Cooperation with citizens Reporting system of troubles
Introduction of infrastructure adoption
systems
10
Reduction of maintenance
costs
(-128 mil yen/year)
Repair and
replacement costs
Streamlining through life
cycle
Examination of quality level
Reduction of costs
(-173 mil yen/year)
For each: road surfaces, bridges, trees,
sign posts, light poles, parks and
sewerage systems
Implementation Reexamination of organization structure
Financial arrangement
Review and reexamination of the plan
In the “Fuchu City Infrastructure Management Plan,” the city estimates the cost-reduction
realized by implementing all the measures in the road sector (including bridges) and the park
sector mentioned in the plan at 12% (300 million yen)
11
.
9
Governments sell the right to give a name to a facility. Sponsors can expect to raise publicity through names
implying the company or its product. The first case in Japan was Ajinomoto Stadium in 2002.
10
Civil society groups and private companies can adopt a part of public facilities such as roads and parks and agree
to undertake maintenance such as cleaning of the adopted facilities.
11
The estimate does not include the cost reduction in the sewerage sector, because the city was not able to estimate
the cost for maintaining the current level of sewerage services.
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Table 9 Difference in Annual Infrastructure Management Cost between Planned and As-is
(keeping current level)
Unit: Mill yen/year
Source: Fuchu City Infrastructure Management Plan
Figure 14 Difference in Annual Infrastructure Management Cost between As-is and
Planned (Predicted)
2.2.3 Introduction of Comprehensive Outsourcing of Management
Comprehensive outsourcing of management is an example of infrastructure management and
refers to outsourcing of infrastructure management over more than one sector, which was
previously conducted by the administration, to private companies. This has been in practice
since around 2006 mainly in the form of designated administrator system or comprehensive
outsourcing to private entities.
In the designated administrator system, the designated administrator is obliged to receive the
approval of the assembly. This system was introduced as part of the administrative reform of
local governments with the amendment of the Local Autonomy Act in September 2003.
Currently, it is implemented in 73,476 public facilities and about 30% of which or 24,384
facilities are run by a private company or an NPO corporation.
Estimated cost
for Planned (1)
Estimated cost
for As-is (2)
Difference
(1)-(2) =(3)
(3) / (2)
Actual expenditure
in 2010
Roads, Footways,
Bridges
892 1,167 -275 -23.6% 857
Street trees 224 220 4 1.8% 134
Signposts 4 2 2 100.0% 2
Street lights 210 152 58 38.2% 152
Road subtotal 1,329 1,541 -212 -13.8% 1,145
Parks 825 913 -88 -9.6% 733
Total 2,154 2,454 -300 -12.2% 1,878
Infrastructure type
Roads
2,454 mill yen/year
Current Cost (1,878 mill yen/year)
2,154 mill yen/year
Estimated cost (million yen/year)
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Comprehensive outsourcing to private entities is a method of outsourcing all operations as a
package to a single entity, instead of outsourcing each operation one by one to different entities,
to achieve economies of scale and improve public services.
However, with respect to roads, the administration agency is specified by law and outsourcing
to an external party is prohibited. The Road Act stipulates in Article 13 (maintenance, repair and
other management of national roads), Article 15 (administration of prefectural roads) and
Article 16 (administration of municipal roads) that road administration shall be carried out by
administrative organization and that expressways shall be managed by companies specified by
the Act on Special Measures Concerning Road Construction and Improvement.
In the areas other than roads, some municipalities have started making an attempt to reduce the
expenses through economies of scale and to improve public services by comprehensive
outsourcing to a single business entity.
(1) Comprehensive Outsourcing Contract of Fuchu City
Fuchu City, in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area started a three-year pilot project in fiscal 2014 for
comprehensive outsourcing of minor road repairs, cleaning, trimming of roadside trees, electric
bulb replacement of street lights and road patrol to one business entity. The following benefits
are expected of this project.
(Securing profit through economies of scale)
Expansion of the coverage of operation items
Expansion of the coverage of city area (division of the city area for
outsourcing)
(Collaboration with residents and improvement of resident service)
Transfer of a part of the city’s responsibility to private companies or residents
Proactive utilization of the ideas and new technologies of the residents and
business entities
Figure 15 Description of Pilot Project Concerning Comprehensive Outsourcing
Source: Fuchu City
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Fuchu City wishes to further expand this project of comprehensive outsourcing, thereby
ensuring the profit of private business entities and improving the satisfaction of residents by
getting them involved in the project.
(2) Comprehensive Outsourcing to Designated Administrator by Kiyosato-cho,
Hokkaido
Kiyosato-cho, Hokkaido, designates a construction company in the town as a designated
administrator for comprehensive outsourcing to reduce infrastructure maintenance costs.
Table 10 Comprehensive Outsourcing by Kiyosato-cho, Hokkaido
Item Content
Designated
Administrator
Kiyoken Kogyo (Construction Company)
Background
Outsourcing started in 2006. Kiyoken Kogyo was established through
investment of several local construction companies.
Effect Personnel cost for two staff was reduced.
Outsource Period 2010-2014 (5 years)
Amount 255 million yen (tax included)
Outsourced Work
Monitoring of rivers, surface levelling, mowing, road surface cleaning,
surface paving, repair of slopes, snow removal. Monitoring of face
paving, repair of slopes, snow removal.
(3) Comprehensive Outsourcing to Designated Administrator by Ozora-cho,
Hokkaido
Ozora-cho, Hokkaido, designates a cooperative association in the town as a designated
administrator for comprehensive outsourcing to reduce infrastructure maintenance costs.
Table 11 Comprehensive Outsourcing by Ozora-cho, Hokkaido
Item Contents
Designated
Administrato
r
Ozora Comprehensive Cooperation Association
Background
Starting with a 3–year contract (April 1, 2011-March 31, 2013), the
coop has renewed the contract.
Effect Personnel cost for two staff was reduced.
Outsource Period 2014-2016 (3 years)
Amoun
t
390 million yen/year (tax included)
Outsourced Work Roads, bridges and rivers
(4) Comprehensive Outsourcing of Water Supply and Sewerage Projects by Ota City
Ota City in Gunma Prefecture has been keen on outsourcing water supply and sewerage projects
to external entities, and outsourced meter reading and fee collection operations in 2001 and
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operation and management of water purification plant in 2002 to a third party. Moreover, in
2006, the City started comprehensive outsourcing of all operations relating to the water supply
project excluding the operations concerning “policy formulation and determination”, “permits,
licenses and disciplinary actions” and “ensuring fairness”. This comprehensive outsourcing of
water supply projects, which ranges over five years, covers acceptance and inspection of
construction applications, general affairs operations including corporate accounting and building
management, and witnessing repair works, among others.
In Japan, technical operations concerning water supply facilities may be outsourced only to a
single entity.
12
Therefore, three companies employed as outsourcees of this project, namely,
Meidensha, GCC and Plumbing, Heating and Air-conditioning Constructor’s Association,
established a new company called “Advanced Business Service Co., Ltd.” as a business entity to
conduct this project.
Figure 16 Operations of Advanced Business Service Co., Ltd.
Source: Meidensha Website
The following benefits were obtained by implementing this project.
Reduction of staff
The staff was reduced by 33 from 52 in 2006, shortly before the start of comprehensive
outsourcing, then to 19 in 2013.
Reduction of total cost
The cost was reduced by about 700 million yen (10%) from about 6.7 billion yen before
2006 to about 6 billion yen, which is the cost of comprehensive outsourcing from 2007
to 2011.
13
12
Paragraph 1, Article 7, Enforcement Order of the Water Supply Act
13
Local Public Enterprise Division, Local Public Finance Bureau, MIC “Application Cases of Private-Sector
Management Methods to Local Public Enterprises”, October 2012
Maintenance of
water
p
urification
Maintenance of
p
i
p
elines
Management of
water su
pp
l
y
Collection of water
fee
Back office
ti
Operation management
Maintenance management
Water quality management
Water leakage support
Emergency treatment
Pipe repai
r
A
pplication reception
Design revie
w
Completion inspection
Meter reading
Fee collection
Electronic calculation
Form filling
Inventory management
Closing process
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The succeeding five-year comprehensive outsourcing (April 2012 to March 2017) has a wider
range of outsourced operations with the addition of facility maintenance operations.
(5) Comprehensive Management of Sewerage Pipeline Facilities in Kawachinagano
City
In Kawachinagano City, Osaka Prefecture, out of the total sewerage pipelines of about 360km
that have been constructed, as much as about 91km (about 25%) are 30 years old or older. As
such, the risk of road subsidence accident caused by the aging facilities that would seriously
affect the life of the residents has been increasing.
To achieve a transition from the conventional after-the-fact maintenance to preventive
maintenance, in addition to the operation of handling complaints from residents, which was
already outsourced, the City currently outsources patrol inspections and investigations, periodic
cleaning as well as research and planning relative to life extension plan as a package.
Figure 17 Operations Packaged in the Project
Source: Material of MLIT
Package
Pipe renovation
plan
Sewerage facilit
y
management
mission
Sewerage facilit
y
maintenance
p
lan
Sewerage ledger
pipe maintenance data
Disaster response
(3) Resident response
(2) Problem solving
(1) Planning
Maintenance and management (regular operation)
Observe
works
Accident
response
Resident
response
Understand current status
Problem
solving survey
Inspection
Survey
Cleaning Repair
Survey
(TV camera)
Other
survey
Cleaning
Judgment
Judgment
Repair Other
treatment
Obser
vation
(Derived work)
Emergent measures
Survey policy review
Damage survey
(1
st
, 2
nd
)
Judgment
Rehabilitation
Observation
Manage maintenance
information
Propose future
maintenance plan
Review maintenance plan for
sewerage pipes
Other designed
countermeasures
Rehabilitation
Assume concentration
by screening
Understand damage
Emergency response
to prevent 2
nd
damage
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New Technologies
2.3
2.3.1 Study Methodology
In this chapter, technologies that contribute to the extension of the life and reduction in the
life-cycle cost of infrastructure are described. Many of the technologies described below were
selected from the New Technology Information System (NETIS) of MLIT. NETIS is a
database system, which MLIT has been developing and operating since fiscal 2001, for the
purpose of sharing and disseminating the information on new technologies
14
developed by the
private sector. It is a mechanism not only to promote active application of new technologies
for the reduction in the cost and the improvement in quality of public works, but also to
facilitate improvement of new technologies. The system has approx. 4,700 registered
technologies
15
, which are being updated upon application for updating from the companies.
In the following, the technologies selected using the criteria mentioned in the table below are
described.
Table 12 Criteria for Selection of New Technologies
○ About “Technologies for inspection and maintenance”
(i) Simple design (not occupy the installation space of equipment)
(ii) Equipment size is not large (transportable by a car)
(iii) The record of adoption in Japan is high (100 or more cases)
(iv) Capacity to extend the life of a facility
(v) Applicability in Thailand
14
New technology means such technology that has had its feasibility verified by the methods including tests made by
the private business operator who has developed it and that has been put into practical use for public works, and that
its effects of use are or are expected to be higher than those of the conventional technologies in its scope of
application. (Source: Operation Guide to “the New Technology Information System in Public Works”, July 2006).
15
About Revision of “the New Technology Information System (NETIS) in Public Works” – Promotion to introduce
it to the field by defining the technical characteristics of new technologies – Reference Material 1, April 8, 2014,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
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Table 13 New Technologies Used in Japan
Application Type Technology
Road Inspection
Technology
Crack Measuring System
Concrete Soundness Diagnosis Portable Kits
Underground Installation Length Measuring
Equipment
Structure Inspection Camera “DS Camera” System
Road Repair Technology
Water Repellent Agent
Concrete Permeability Modifier
Concrete Reinforcing Embrocation
Highly Durable Epoxy Adhesive
Road Facility Replacement
Technology
Continuous Bridge Surface Pavement Engineering
Road Paving Technology
Modified asphalt pavement
Composite pavement
Draining pavement
SMA pavement
Sewerage Pipe Inspection
Technology
Camera Survey of Inside Water Pipe
Camera Survey of Inside Sewerage Pipe
Water Pipe Repair
Technology
SPR Engineering
NSP Pipe Support for Installing Underground
Sewerage Pipe
Seamless System Engineering
EX Engineering
Water Pipe-Leakage
Prevention Technology
NS-type ductile cast iron pipes
Polyethylene pipes for water distribution
Subway Inspection
Technology
Visualization and digitization of maintenance records
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Classification: Road Inspection Technology
Name: Crack Measuring System
Explanation of the function
This system is a technology to measure the length, width, shape and positional coordinates of a crack
caused in a concrete structure from a distant place by means of an electro-optical measuring
instrument and to automatically plot the measured data by dedicated application software on an
AutoCAD drawing.
Use
(1) The sectional data and linear data of a structure to be inspected are measured.
(2) The length, width, shape and positional coordinates of a crack in it are measured and the
measured data are automatically plotted by the joint use of dedicated application software and
commercially available AutoCAD.
Inspection Scene, Automatic Plotting Image and Development View of Analytical Results (example)
Effect
The measurement can be made from a distant place without temporary scaffolds and mobile
elevating work platform, ensuring work cost reduction.
The measurement can be made from a safe place, ensuring the higher safety of work to be
expected.
The measured data can be automatically plotted, ensuring higher reproducibility and quality and
the shorter work schedule and the higher economy of work.
The accuracy is higher than the conventional technologies (sketch drawings).
Number of cases of application in Japan: 146 cases (as of May 2012)
Applicability in Thailand
Applicability and needs of this technology is examined in: ODA Project Formulation Survey on
popularization of 3D maintenance methods for structures using Japan’s high-tech survey instruments
and measurement technologies, March 2014, joint venture between Kansai Construction Survey and
Oriental Consultants.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Kansai Construction Survey Co., Ltd.
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=KK-080019
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Classification: Road Inspection Technology
Name: Concrete Soundness Diagnosis Portable Kits
Explanation of the function
The portable kits are used for the survey technology to search any surface layer defects (including
float, exfoliation and cavity) in tunnel lining concrete and RC floor slabs by the hammering method
(technology to record and analyze the sound caused by hammering by means of a microphone and to
evaluate their soundness).
Use
The points to be surveyed are hammered and the sound data is recorded to produce contour diagram
from the stored data.
Effect
The searching performance and accuracy is improved.
The digital data is obtained and the inspection results can be reflected on the next inspection.
Accurate and objective results are obtained without relying on the inspector’s skills.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 44 cases (as of November 2010)
Applicability in Thailand
BMA uses an echo test to measure soundness of concrete, which is similar to this technology,
therefore, applicability of this technology is assumed to be high.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Sato Kogyo Co., Ltd.
References:
1)
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=KT-100062&TabType=&nt=
2) http://www.satokogyo.co.jp/technology/detail.php?id=55&parent_id=1&category_id=8
Hammering data is
stored.
Microphone to
receive vibrations
Hamme
r
Data is recorded as hammered.
Contour diagram is
displayed.
(Red: unsound; Green:
sound
)
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Classification: Road Inspection Technology
Name: Underground Installation Length Measuring Equipment
Explanation of the function
The length measuring equipment is a technology to measure the length of a steel material buried
underground including H-steel, sheet pile, lock bolt, slope anchor bolt or pipe anchor by
non-destructive inspection. If there is a crack or corrosion in the steel material, the measurement of
the length comes to a stop at the location of the crack or corrosion. And because the measured length
is shorter than the actual length, one can confirm the presence of a crack or corrosion. This
technology enables the finding of any changes due to cracks or corrosion in poles of road facilities.
Use
A sensor is installed at the exposed part of a pole on the ground to record the ultrasonic data, which
is analyzed to diagnose the defective position in detail.
Effect
A crack position and corrosion can be monitored by ultrasonics without damaging a pole of
road facility.
The positioning information can be managed by a GPS terminal and a crack position can be
monitored at a glance.
As the corrosion analysis software is also provided, the corrosion in 4 levels and the corrosion
condition can be displayed on a waveform capture window.
The equipment can be carried out by one person.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 22 cases (as of September 2013)
Applicability in Thailand
BMA uses a similar technology, therefore, applicability of this technology is assumed to be high.
Developer of the technology
Developer: MK Kaihatsu Co., Ltd. / Japan Probe Co., Ltd.
References: http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=CB-110028
Crack
Sensor
PC
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Classification: Road Inspection Technology
Name: Structure Inspection Camera “DS Camera” System
Explanation of the function
This system is a technology to shoot a point incapable of visual inspection by the manual operation
of a digital video camera with a flexible arm.
Use
The inspection is made by a two-person team, one person moving the camera, and the other checking
the video. Any deterioration or damage can be evaluated from the image.
Effect
As the work can be done manually without mobile elevating work platform etc., the inspection
process can be shorter than the conventional method.
No large machine and temporary facility are used, ensuring the economical work.
No traffic regulation is required.
Safe work is ensured.
A dark or narrow point can be inspected, ensuring a wider range of inspection.
The inspection can be performed more quickly in the event of an emergency.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 11 cases (as of June 2010)
Applicability in Thailand
This technology was introduced in the Study’s workshop this July and attracted attention from
participants from the road sector, therefore it is expected that there will be demand for inspection of
bridges in locations where visual inspection is difficult.
Developer of the technology
Developer: West Nippon Expressway Engineering Chugoku Co., Ltd. and Sansei Bussan Co., Ltd.,
and Intes
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=CG-090005&TabType=2&nt
=nt
Digital video camera
Moving the camera
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Classification: Road Repair Technology
Name: Water Repellent Agent
Explanation of the function
By applying this water repellent agent, concrete and the external concrete wall is coated to prevent
water from penetrating into the concrete inside.
Use
The building concrete surface is washed and coated with the agent.
Effect
The agent is not a film, but is penetrated into the inside of the concrete, ensuring a longer recoating
cycle and lower maintenance costs.
The concrete neutralization is suppressed and the concrete deterioration can be delayed and the
repair cost can be reduced.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 23 cases (as of September 2012)
Applicability in Thailand
This technology to easily extend the life of concrete structures is assumed to be highly applicable in
Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Silica Japan Laboratory,
Token Polymer Chemical Co., Ltd., Nihon Samikon Co.,
Ltd., r-fourth Co., Ltd.
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=CB-070015&TabType=2&nt
=nt
Weat
h
er res
i
stance test per
i
o
d
(h
ours
)
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Classification: Road Repair Technology
Name: Concrete Permeability Modifier [RC Guardex]
Explanation of the function
The permeability modifier is the technology of modifying concrete quality by spraying and
permeating the agent onto concrete to ensure the concrete waterproofing, enhance its durability,
prevent its salt damage or its frost damage, enhance its strength, prevent cracks and efflorescence,
and stop water leakages.
Use
The dirt on the coated concrete surface is removed and
the concrete surface is coated with the diluted solution
by means of a sprayer, brush or roller.
Source:
http://nakamura-web.jp/product/rc-guardex/guardex-se
ries/bousui.html
Effect
By permeating the solution into the concrete, its bending and compressive strength as well as its
waterproofness and durability are improved permanently.
The workability and durability are superior and the maintenance cost can be reduced.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 2,881 cases (as of March 2013)
Applicability in Thailand
This technology to easily extend the life of concrete structures is assumed to be highly applicable in
Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Reinforced Concrete Care of Japan, Airex Inc.
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=KT-060600&TabType=2&nt
=nt
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Classification: Road Repair Technology
Name: Xypex Concrete Engineering
Explanation of the function
Xypex concrete engineering is a technology of forming and proliferating cement crystals on the
capillary pores, aggregate transition zone or crack interface repeatedly (using chemical reaction) to
densify the entire concrete body and enhance its durability.
Use
The concrete surface is cleaned by high-pressure washing and supplied with water. Then the
auxiliary materials are sprayed on it and it is coated with the main material. Thereafter, it is cured
and fresh water is sprayed on it for 3 days.
Effect
The technology can form a surface modifying zone to prevent any concrete deteriorating factors
from penetrating into the concrete and it is effective for waterproofing and water stopping,
self-recovery of cracks, suppression of progressive neutralization, and initial defect recovery.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 2,284 cases (as of January 2011)
Applicability in Thailand
This technology to easily extend the life of concrete structures is assumed to be highly applicable in
Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Japan Xypex Co., Ltd.
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=QS-000011&TabType=2&nt
=nt
Main material
coating
(1
st
layer)
A
uxiliary
materials
Base coating
High-pressure
washing
Main material
coating
(2
nd
layer)
A
uxiliary
materials
Fresh water
spray
Slab concrete
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45
Classification: Road Repair Technology
Name: Highly Durable Epoxy Adhesive (Applying to register in NETIS)
Explanation of the function
Highly durable epoxy adhesive is for connecting concrete structures when placing fresh concrete.
Traditionally, concrete is placed on an old floor slab when repairing bridges to recover the load
bearing ability. However, the joint area of old and new concrete is too weak to secure enough
durability and water resistance. This adhesive can improve durability and water resistance of the
joint area.
Use
This adhesive is applied on the old concrete surface and at least five minutes later fresh concrete is
placed.
Scene of Placing on Concrete Slab of an Elevated Bridge
Effect
When placing concrete on the existing concrete structure, this adhesive makes up for weaknesses in
the joint area and improves durability and water resistance by bonding firmly and leads to extend the
soundness of asphalt pavers placed on the RC floor slabs and floor slabs.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 129 cases (as of September 2014)
Applicability in Thailand
In the near future needs for major repairs of RC floor slabs of elevated bridges will increase. This
easy method to extend RC floor slabs in placing fresh concrete on existing concrete structures is
assumed to be highly applicable in Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Kajima Road Co., Ltd.
References: http://www.kajimaroad.co.jp/tech_data/t014-00074.html
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46
Classification: Road Facility Replacement Technology
Name: Continuous Bridge Surface Pavement Engineering (Hexa Lock Engineering)
Explanation of the function
This technology uses flexible dispersion type embedded joints which are applicable to long-span
bridges with a flexible girder of 120m and joint gaps of 400mm or less. The bridge surface is
continuously paved with the same materials to realize a jointless road bridge.
Use
The load supporting materials are installed and coated
with special elastic resin, on which the Hexa Lock
structure is installed and paved.
Hexa Lock Structure
Effect
If the surface layer is damaged, only the surface layer can be cut out and overlaid. The workability
is enhanced and the operation and maintenance is easy because no flexible joints are used.
The bridge abutments and piers can be protected against damage by shocks due to level differences
at the boundary between the bridge surface pavement and the flexible joints.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 1,074 cases (as of November 2013)
Applicability in Thailand
Traditional expansion joints are used in Thailand, and damage around joints is prominent. Jointless
structures not only make for smoother driving but also eliminate necessity of maintenance, which
can contribute to reducing damage on elevated structures. Therefore applicability in Thailand is
assumed to be high.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Japan Cons-Tech Co., Ltd.
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=CG-980017&TabType=2&nt
=nt
[Load supporting work]
[Hexa Lock work]
(3) 2 layer sliding sheet is installed.
Before work
(1) Load supporting materials are
installed
(4) Steel hexagon panel is installed.
(2) Special elastic resin coating
(5) Base layer: Special asphalt
mixt
u
r
e
f
o
r H
e
xa
.
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Classification: Road Paving Technology
Name: Modified Asphalt Pavement
Explanation of the function
Modified asphalt is an asphalt mixture with improved durability manufactured with addition of a
modifier to or modification treatment of the straight asphalt mixture. Its durability is derived from
good flow resistance, abrasion resistance, aggregate scattering resistance and flexibility. It is
mainly used as a material for the surface and binder courses.
Use
The method of paving road with modified asphalt is the same as that used when paving with regular
asphalt.
There are several types of modified asphalt including modified asphalt Type-I, Type-II and Type-III
prepared by mixing rubber and/or thermoplastic elastomer individually or in combination with the
straight asphalt, modified asphalt type-H used in porous asphalt mixture, semi-blown asphalt with
improved thermo-sensitivity provided by the blowing process, epoxy asphalt in which epoxy resin is
used as a modifier and hard asphalt used in mastic asphalt mixture.
Effect
The use of modified asphalt is effective in preventing rutting on the road surface where high
durability is required such as the surface of heavily trafficked roads and bridges.
Number of cases of application in Japan: Many
As the performances required for road surface differ between regions and between locations because
of the difference in the meteorological conditions and traffic volume, the variety of modified asphalt
available in Japan is unparalleled in the world and many original technologies for the modification
have been developed in Japan.
Applicability in Thailand
Modified asphalt has been used on the surface of some roads in Thailand. Its applicability in
Thailand is expected to be high because there are many overloaded vehicles and many busy roads in
Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: The Japan Asphalt Association
References: http://www.askyo.jp/knowledge/05-1.html#top
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Classification: Road Paving Technology
Name: Composite Pavement
Explanation of the function
The composite pavement is pavement consisting of asphalt surface course laid over a concrete slab.
It has the characteristics of both high durability of the concrete pavement and comfort of driving and
ease of maintenance of the asphalt pavement.
Use
Concrete slabs are cast on subgrade and asphalt pavement is installed on the slab.
Effect
Rutting affects not only the surface course but also the courses below it on a road used heavily by
large vehicles. As the composite pavement has rutting resistance and high durability, it does not
require frequent repairs. Therefore, LCC reduction is expected from its use.
Number of cases of application in Japan: Many
The composite pavement was used recently in the construction of the Shin-Tomei Expressway.
The use of continuous reinforced-concrete slabs in the construction eliminated joints between slabs,
which improved the comfort of driving further.
Applicability in Thailand
It is expected that the composite pavement is not applicable in the plains where ground is often soft
and that its applicability is high in areas other than plains where ground is firm.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Japan Road Contractors Association
References: http://www.dohkenkyo.net/pavement/meisyo/conpo.html
Concrete pavement
C
ompos
i
te
p
avement
A
sp
h
a
l
t
p
avement
Concrete
slab
Sur
f
ace course
Binder course
Base course
Sub-
b
ase course
A
sp
h
a
l
t m
i
xture
A
sp
h
a
l
t sta
bili
ze
d
b
ase, etc.
Cement sta
bili
ze
d
b
ase, etc.
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Classification: Road Paving Technology
Name: Draining Pavement
Explanation of the function
The draining pavement consists of a surface course of porous asphalt and a water-impermeable
course beneath it. This structure allows rainwater to permeate in the asphalt surface and the
permeated water to be drained off into drainage facilities at roadsides.
Use
A water impermeable course shall be laid on the base course and coarse asphalt and water-draining
paving materials shall be installed on it.
Effect
The use of the draining pavement on road surface will reduce the number and sizes of puddles
formed on it on rainy days. Vehicles traveling on such a road will create less water splash
and spray, which will improve the visibility on the road. Hydroplaning is also less likely to
occur on vehicles travelling on such a road. In these ways, the use of the draining pavement
is expected to help reduce road accidents on rainy days.
The porousness of the draining pavement is expected reduce noise as part of the noise created
by friction between the road surface and tires will be dispersed in the pores in the pavement.
Number of cases of application in Japan: Many
The draining pavement has been widely used in Japan for the reduction in accidents on rainy days
and noise reduction.
Applicability in Thailand
The applicability of the draining pavement is considered to be high for the reduction of accidents on
rainy days, which occur frequently in Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Japan Road Contractors Association
References: http://www.dohkenkyo.net/pavement/meisyo/conpo.html
Before the installation
After the
installation
Rain
W
ate
r
-
i
mpermea
bl
e
course
Sur
f
ace
course
Base course
S
u
b
gra
d
e
Roa
d
s
id
e
di
tc
h
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Classification: Road Paving Technology
Name: SMA Pavement
Explanation of the function
The SMA pavement has a high rough aggregate content (70 – 80%). The space between rough
aggregate particles is filled with asphalt-mortar. The asphalt mortar filling, the engagement between
rough aggregate particles and the use of reinforcing fiber and modified asphalt provides flow
resistance, abrasion resistance, water-tightness, skid resistance and fatigue fracture resistance to the
pavement.
Use
While the SMA pavement is manufactured and installed in a way similar to the straight asphalt, the
temperature of the mixture shall have to be controlled precisely and the mixture shall be compacted
thoroughly.
Effect
It is expected to be useful as a measure against rutting where high durability is required for the
pavement such as busy roads and bridges.
Number of cases of application in Japan: Many
Applicability in Thailand
The SMA pavement has been used on the surface of some roads in Thailand. Its applicability in
Thailand is expected to be high because there are many overloaded vehicles and many busy roads in
Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Japan Road Contractors Association
References: http://www.dohkenkyo.net/pavement/meisyo/conpo.html
- High coarse aggregate
content
- High stone powder
content
- High asphalt content
Definition of SM
A
Dense graded asphalt concrete Draining pavement
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Classification: Water Pipe Inspection Technology
Name: Camera Survey of Inside Water Pipe
Explanation of the function
This is a technology for conducting inspection of the insides of water pipelines which are difficult to
be inspected with the naked eye for safe supply of piped water and efficient replacement of
deteriorated pipelines.
Use
A pipe inspection camera is inserted from a fire hydrant to survey any incrustations, joint gaps, paint
stripping, mixed foreign objects inside a water pipe.
Source: JWECA Website
Effect
The conditions inside pipes can be observed in detail from the ground level.
Number of cases of application in Japan: More than 4,000 cases (as of March 2013 [Source JWECA
Website])
Applicability in Thailand
This technology does not require heavy machinery and is not affected by climatic and geological
conditions. Assuming that structure of fire hydrants and air valves where the camera is inserted is
the same as Japan, this technology can be highly applicable.
Developer of the technology
References: http://www.jweca.org/
Uninterrupted inside water pipe
survey system
Joint gaps
Deformed pipe
Incrustations
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
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Classification: Sewerage Pipe Inspection Technology
Name: Camera Survey of Inside Sewerage Pipe
Explanation of the function
While a person can enter a large diameter pipe (φ800 mm or more) and inspect its inside with the
naked eye, the inside of small and medium-sized pipes cannot be inspected in the same way because
it is difficult to enter such pipes. This technology is used for the inspection of the inside of such
pipes.
Use
A self-propelling robot equipped with a video camera is placed inside a pipe from a manhole. The
robot takes video images of the inside of the pipes while moving through the pipes.
Self-traveling Robot with TV Camera and Camera Survey Videos of Inside Sewerage Pipe
Effect
This technology allows acquisition of precise and detailed information of the inside of sewerage
pipes which a person cannot enter, such as cracks on interior wall, exfoliation of the surface of the
interior wall, degradation and damage on the pipes caused by intruding roots of trees.
Number of cases of application in Japan: Many
Lot of cases are reported across the country, including in ordinance-designated cities such as Tokyo
and Yokohama
Applicability in Thailand
Like camera survey of inside water pipe, this technology is not affected by climatic and geological
conditions and can be conducted using only a self-traveling robot with a TV camera. Therefore, this
technology is assumed to be highly applicable
Developer of the technology
At least ten companies are providing services using similar technologies in Japan.
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Classification: Sewerage Pipe Repair Technology
Name: SPR Engineering
Explanation of the function
This is a method to form a strong composite pipe in a deteriorated pipe conduit embedded
underground and to renew the pipe conduit. In using this technology, the repair can be carried out
without doing excavation work and in the water supplying state.
Use
There are 3 steps in the construction method of this technology: (i) the pipe manufacturing work, (ii)
the floatation prevention and timbering work and (iii) the backfilling work.
Pipe Manufacturing Work
Floating Prevention and Timbering Work
Backfilling Work
Source: Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd. Website
Profile drum
Power unit
Profile is inserted into the existing pipe by pipe
manufacturing machine set in the manhole.
Pipe manufacturing
machine
Existing pipe
Rehabilitated pipe
Lateral profile
Elevation profile
Mortar filling
Rehabilitated pipe
Mortar
Existing pipe
Siphon stop
cock
Ai
r
-
b
leeding
Air compressor
Existing pipe
Rehabilitated pipe
Mortar
Existing pipe
Rehabilitated
p
ipe
Clamp
Base jack
Scaffolding
p
ipe
Waling
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Effect
No excavation is made, giving little influence on the surrounding environment including traffic
regulation.
Quality stability is high because the hard polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes are used as the inner
materials and no hardening is needed at construction sites.
The long-time performance (corrosion resistance and wear resistance) is excellent and vibration
resistance is also ensured.
The short work period and the high economy are ensured (with cost reduction of approx. 50%
compared with the conventional technology).
Number of cases of application in Japan: 1,879 cases (as of September 2013)
Applicability in Thailand
This technology has a track record of over 700 km and accounts for about 30% in value terms of the
pipe replacement market in Japan. It is also popular overseas and is about to become a standard in
Germany and the US.
In Thailand, especially in Bangkok, pipe replacement under congested roads is difficult, as in Japan,
therefore this technology is assumed to be highly applicable.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Tokyo Metropolitan Sewerage Service Corporation, Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd. and
Adachi Construction & Industry Co., Ltd.
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=KT-990074&TabType=2&nt
=nt
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55
Classification: Sewerage Pipe Repair Technology
Name: Seamless System Engineering
Explanation of the function
This technology is the pipe conduit replacement method in which the construction is made from an
existing manhole without excavation.
Use
The conventional technology had to
excavate the entire pipe laying range to
relay pipes. This engineering method
allows the replacement materials having
the same or higher performance as the
new pipes to be lined in the existing pipe
conduit for pipe conduit repair and
rebuilding. The fitting pipes and the
junctions between those fitting pipes and
the main piping are also renewed with
the same materials, allowing the main
piping and the fitting pipes to be
integrated seamlessly.
The construction work images of lead-in
work, diameter expansion work and
photo-hardening work which are the
characteristic construction steps are
shown in the figure.
Effect
There is little influence on traffic regulation and surrounding environment because no
excavation is made.
The work hours are shortened and the cost is reduced.
The CO
2
emission is so low as to have little influence on the surrounding environment.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 1,104 cases (as of January 2010)
Applicability in Thailand
In Thailand, especially in Bangkok, excavation for pipe replacement under congested roads is
difficult, therefore this technology is assumed to be highly applicable.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Toa Grout Kogyo Co., Ltd., Obayashi Road Corporation, and SGC Inc.
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=KT-040074&TabType=2&nt
=nt
Lead-in wor
k
Diameter ex
p
ansion wor
k
Photo-hardenin
g
wor
k
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Classification: Sewerage Pipe Repair Technology
Name: EX Engineering
Explanation of the function
This technology is a pipe conduit replacement method to rebuild or repair the existing deteriorated or
damaged pipes without excavation. It uses hard polyvinyl chloride resin as material. By the
replacement of existing pipe conduits using this technology, the cost reduction and higher safety are
expected in comparison with the excavation method.
Use
The construction method is largely divided into the following Steps 1 to 4.
Effect
There is little influence on traffic regulation and surrounding environment because no
excavation is made.
The work hours are shortened and the cost is reduced.
The rebuilt or repaired pipe conduit is integrated, forming continuous jointless pipes, which
can maintain the flow-down function even if ground movements is caused by an earthquake.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 954 cases (as of May 2012)
Applicability in Thailand
In Thailand, especially in Bangkok, excavation for pipe replacement under congested roads is
difficult, therefore this technology is assumed to be highly applicable.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Osaka Bosui Construction Co., Ltd., Kubota-C.I. Co., Ltd.
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=CB-080008&TabType=2&nt
=nt
(
i
)
Pi
p
e conduit washin
g
(
ii
)
Leadin
g
in
p
i
p
e
(iii) Pipe heating, diameter expansion and cooling
(
iv
)
Com
p
letion
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Classification: Water Pipe-Leakage Prevention Technology
Name: NS-type Ductile Cast Iron Pipes
Explanation of the function
An NS-type ductile cast iron pipe is a highly elastic and highly flexible pipe with push-on
connectors on both ends. When extreme force is applied to a pipeline made of NS-type pipes, the
male connector and the female connector of adjacent pipes are interlocked to keep them connected
and maintain water-tightness of the pipes.
Use
Installation of a pipeline can be completed by inserting the male connectors of pipes into the female
connectors of adjacent pipes. When external force is applied to a pipeline, it behaves like a chain
buried underground by extending, contracting and bending its joints using their large elasticity and,
when a joint is extended to the limit, the protruding part of male connecter and the locking ring of
the female connectors of adjacent pipes become interlocked to activate the locking mechanism and
the mechanism protects the integrity of the pipeline.
Effect
Water leakages from an underground water pipeline can be prevented by constructing a pipeline
with NS-type ductile cast iron pipes which have the locking mechanism at locations where unequal
settling of the ground is expected to occur, e.g. locations with soft ground and boundaries of
structures, and those where significant ground deformation is expected to be caused by earthquakes.
Number of cases of application in Japan: 87.4% of straight ductile cast iron pipes used in Japan are
earthquake-resistant ones including NS-type ductile cast iron pipes.
Applicability in Thailand
A characteristic of this technology is that water leakages from pipelines constructed with this
technology occur very rarely even when ground deformation has moved the pipelines because the
locking mechanism makes loosening of pipe joints by ground deformation unlikely. Because the
ground is soft and subsidence causes loosening of pipe joints and water leakages from pipelines in
Bangkok, this technology is considered to have high applicability in Thailand for the prevention of
these problems.
Developer of the technology
Japan Ductile Iron Pipe Association, Nippon Chutetsukan K. K.
References: http://www.jdpa.gr.jp/
http://www.nichu.co.jp/product/dac01.html
Locking ring
Rubber ring
Centering rubber
Protruding part male connecte
r
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Classification: Water Pipe-Leakage Prevention Technology
Name: Polyethylene pipes for water distribution
Explanation of the function
Polyethylene pipes for distribution of piped water show excellent earthquake-resistance by
absorbing the impact of ground deformation with the characteristics of the material being light and
hygienic and having excellent flexibility and corrosion resistance and the structural integration of
pipes and joints with electrical heat fusion.
Use
After inserting a pipe in a joint in which heating wire is embedded, electricity is applied to the wire
from a controller to heat the wire and the resin in the joint and pipe are melted with the heat
generated by the wire and fused together. As the structurally integrated joint parts have the
strength equivalent to or greater than the pipe parts, a highly reliable pipeline can be constructed
with these pipes.
Effect
Water leakages from an underground water pipeline can be prevented by constructing pipelines with
polyethylene pipes on which joints have been integrated with fusion at locations where unequal
settling of the ground is expected to occur, e.g. locations with soft ground and boundaries of
structure, and those where significant ground deformation is expected to be caused by earthquakes.
Number of cases of application in Japan: The total length of the polyethylene pipelines was 2,614
km in 2010.
Applicability in Thailand
Because the ground is soft and subsidence causes loosening of pipe joints and water leakages from
pipelines in Bangkok, this technology is considered to have high applicability in Thailand for the
prevention of these problems.
Developer of the technology
Japan Polyethylene Piping System and Integrated Technology Association for Water Supply
(POLITEC), Kubota-C.I. Co., Ltd.
References: http://www.politec.gr.jp/index.html
http://www.kubota-ci.co.jp/products/water/polyethylene.html
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Classification: Subway Inspection Technology
Name: Visualization and Digitization of Maintenance Records
Explanation of the function
Deterioration status is identified by taking images from a vehicle equipped with a measurement
device running in the tunnel.
Use
It is possible to take images from a vehicle equipped with a camera running in the tunnel and make a
continuous image from them, which is used to identify defects including cracking or water leakage.
The system features functions to store and search inspection results and repair history, which
contributes to make the data such as location and size of deformations more accurate and objective
and easy to update and search. Furthermore, the system is connected to GIS so that it is possible to
search and browse a variety of maintenance data, construction/ inspection history, accidents and
disaster records, and user feedback information.
Effect
The inspection is conducted safely
and accurately in a short time.
Data is easily managed and possible
to be used for various analysis.
Vehicle equipped with a camera
device
Source: Japan Subway Association
Number of cases of application in Japan: Tokyo Metro Inc. utilizes this technology.
Applicability in Thailand
Subway system in Thailand is so new and short that the need for this technology is not
acknowledged yet, however in future needs may arise.
Developer of the technology
References: http://www.jametro.or.jp/upload/subway/YLUQLjQXNEJA.pdf
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Commitments by Academic Societies and Industry
2.4
2.4.1 Japan Society of Civil Engineers
The Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) is making its organizational activities under the
governmental guidelines including those issued by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism, though there are some leading discussions. The main activities of JSCE will be
introduced below.
(1) Task Force for Study of Social Infrastructure Maintenance and Replacement
The JSCE set up “the Task Force for Study of Social Infrastructure Maintenance and
Replacement” (hereinafter “Social Infrastructure TF”) for the problems of infrastructure aging
in January 2013 and 8 meetings have been held as of June 2013.
The Social Infrastructure TF is making the study including practical views in reference to the
investigation, deliberations, etc. by “the Social Infrastructure Maintenance Strategy
Subcommittee of the Panel on Infrastructure Development and the Technical Group, Technical
Committee of the Council of Transport Policy, etc.”
(2) Setup of Special Committee for Investigation of Priority Subjects on Social
Infrastructure Maintenance and Replacement (August 2013)
This special committee was set up in August 2013 to promote the strategy of the JSCE
activities, especially the cross-field activities at the initiative of Social Infrastructure TF and in
participation by various committees including the study and research departments within the
JSCE. Three meetings of the Committee have been held as of April 2014.
(3) Information Dissemination by JSCE Magazine
The monthly JSCE Magazine has issued the special edition on infrastructure management every
one or two years since the February 2000 issue until now; meaning it initiated action earlier than
the government. Since around 2003, the magazine has paid attention to the relation with
finance and started to use the concept of asset management from around 2004 and the concept
of preventive maintenance was added in 2010.
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Table 14 Special Issues on Infrastructure Management in JSCE Magazine
(February 2000 to July 2014)
JSCE Issue Special Feature
February 2000 Outline of a plan to consider the maintenance and replacement of social
infrastructure
December 2001 Present and future social infrastructure maintenance
January 2003 Thinking of the balance of public investment and finance, and the future
public works
December 2003 Social infrastructure development and financial source – Financial
management by local governments
August 2004 On introduction of asset management to social infrastructure
January 2006 Management of social infrastructure development – Dawn of policy
management
December 2007 Replacement of social infrastructure
October 2009 Extension of life periods of urban civil engineering structures
December 2010 Future prospect for asset management and inspection/testing technology –
Looking for introduction of preventive maintenance
November 2012 Thinking about social infrastructure development – Original and creative
ideas on financial sources and schemes –
July 2013 What is the essential problem of social infrastructure maintenance? –How to
gain the understanding of citizens –
July 2014 10 years after introduction of asset management – What are the future
prospects, achievements and problems?
Source: JSCE Magazine Website: Contents of back numbers
2.4.2 Power Industry
As the electric power companies are private companies, central government-led activities on the
infrastructure management seen in the management of infrastructure facilities directly managed
by government organizations are not observed in the electricity sector. Instead, each company
is addressing the need for strategic implementation of inspection, maintenance and replacement
of the existing facilities in order to meet the demand for cost-reduction requested by end users.
Therefore, their interest in the advancement of facility diagnosis technology and asset
management methods incorporating economic indices is high. They are accumulating
inspection and diagnosis data and they are beginning to use some of those data for the
preparation of maintenance and replacement plans.
As the aging of power distribution facilities constructed around the same period is in progress,
there will inevitably be a period in which those facilities will have to be replaced at a time.
Therefore, the power companies are spreading the time of replacement by not only delaying the
time of replacement of certain facilities which have been found able to be used beyond the
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expected replacement time in the diagnosis of individual facilities, but also replacing facilities
essential for the entire grid when the number of facilities to be replaced is small even before the
expiry of their life, using the concepts of the cost equalization at the level of individual facilities
and at the level of the entire grid.
Figure 18 Power Distribution Facilities Cost Equalization Concept
Source: Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Japan
In addition, the power companies are developing and using asset management tools to
support studies on the equalization of the risk associated with the arrival of the time of such
mass replacement of electric power distribution facilities and the cost for the replacement
and establishment of standards for the maintenance of old equipment.
Aging distribution
Age
Unit
S
p
readin
g
cost of individual facilit
y
Spreading the cost for overall
network facility
Individual facility
Low risk
Hi
g
h risk
Cost equalization for
individual facility
Based on facility diagnosis
cost and risk are considered
and replacement or repair of
some facilities is postponed.
Cost equalization for
facilities as a whole
Acceptable risk as a whole system is
considered and repair of important
facilities are prioritized.
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Figure 19 Power Industry Asset Management Activities
Source: Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Japan
Power
Generation
Turbine,
Waterwheel,
Electric
motor
Transmission
Tower, Line,
Insulator
Transfor
m
Transformer,
Switching
device,
Lightning
arrester
Distribution
Pole
transformer,
Line switch,
Line arrester,
Underground
cable, Utility
pole, Electric
cable
Power System
Network Asset
Management
Individual Facilities
Asset Management
Tool
Overall Power
Network/ Facility
Individual Facilities
Hydraulic
Nuclear
Thermal
Railwa
y
Large factory
Transmission
substation
Distribution
substation
Small
factory
Shop
Home
Building
Middle size factory
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Trend in the Methods for Infrastructure Facility
2.5
Management
The development of the methods for the management of infrastructure facilities in Japan is
explained in the following in the four stages mentioned below for the sake of convenience:
(i) Engineering maintenance management
(ii) Asset management
(iii) Establishment of ISO series for asset management
(iv) Infrastructure management
Figure 7 is shown again to illustrate the relationship between engineering maintenance
management, asset management and infrastructure management.
( ) example
2.5.1 Engineering Maintenance Management
In the first stage, the minimum maintenance work required for the maintenance of the function
of infrastructure facilities was conducted. Later, with the increase in the number of the
facilities, the demand for the improvement of the efficiency of the maintenance work emerged
and, as a consequence, a management system was developed by systematizing the engineering
methods for the maintenance work.
A general engineering maintenance management cycle for civil engineering structures is
illustrated in Figure 19. Information obtained by the inspection becomes the foundation for
further steps such as developing medium- to long-term maintenance plans and planning budgets
for maintenance. In this planning process, the repair time, repair method for damages are
examined by predicting the degradation of the structure based on the present condition and type
of damage obtained by inspections. However, due to the fact that many uncertainties are
Infrastructure Management
Asset
Management
(Water Supply Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Pipelines)
Maintenance
management
(Purification
facilities)
Maintenance
management
(Pumping
stations)
Asset
Management
(Road Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Pavement)
Maintenance
management
(Bridges)
Maintenance
management
(Safety facilities)
Asset
Management
(Railway Sector)
Maintenance
management
(Civil
engineering)
Maintenance
management
(Telecommunication)
Maintenance
management
(Trains)
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included in the prediction of the degradation, it is essential to improve the management quality
over correcting the maintenance plan by monitoring whether there is deviation in the estimated
values and actual degradation.
Figure 20 Engineering Management Cycle
Source: Striving to Introduce Asset Management, JSCE
The introduction of the engineering maintenance management began in the 1980’s in Japan. It
is widely used in Japan at present.
2.5.2 Asset Management
Asset management is considered as a generic term to describe the concept, methodology and
framework of considering infrastructure facilities as assets and preparing medium to long-term
plans for efficient and effective maintenance and management of the assets from the
engineering and economic viewpoints. However, as the asset management is still in the
process of being developed, its definition has not been established and the term is actually used
to refer to various things.
The management from the engineering viewpoint is the conventional engineering maintenance
management. The newly added management from the economic viewpoint consists mainly of
the elements mentioned below.
To use life cycle cost as the cost
To use tax revenue efficiently on social capital
To be able to provide information on the condition of social capital
Management cycle based on an engineering point of view plus the economic point of view,
which is described in the following figure, should be rotated as per the PDCA (Plan, Do, Check,
Action) cycle.
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Figure 21 Engineering and Economic Management Cycle
The life cycle cost (LCC) of the structure is regarded as including all costs during the entire
period, such as beginning with the plan and design, through construction, operation, repair, until
the dismantlement and final disposal. Generally, LCC includes the following costs.
Initial investment for construction such as plan, design and construction
Maintenance cost such as inspection, maintenance and replacement
Dismantling, processing and final disposal
Risks such as fire, accidents and natural disasters
Social costs such as traffic closures, water and power outages, noise, and vibrations.
Calculating the LCC in the structure design can change the conventional judgment based on the
initial construction costs to the new judgment based on the cost including not only the initial
investment but also all of the long-term maintenance costs.
It is very difficult to select an optimum maintenance plan because there are countless
maintenance scenarios such as when and what repair and reinforcement works should be
executed. However, to calculate the LCC can identify the financially favorable scenario.
As it is difficult to conduct inspection, development of more efficient and accurate
inspection technologies is required.
As an extremely large number of factors are involved in the projection of
deterioration, it is very difficult to predict the deterioration of individual structures
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accurately.
Various technology development activities and studies are being conducted actively to solve the
above-mentioned problems in Japan.
2.5.3 Establishment of ISO standards for Asset Management
As management systems are required to ensure that the cycle of Asset Management of PDCA is
working, such systems are being developed.
(1) ISO55000 Series
The ISO55000 series which came into force in January 2014 are the international standards
derived from the ISO9001 quality management system and prepared based on the PAS55
(published specification on asset management) established by BSI (British Standards
Institution). They provide the guidelines for the implementation of asset management by an
organization which owns and manages assets in compliance with the requirements, such as
planning, operation, evaluation and improvement of performance, and in accordance with the
international standards.
The ISO9001 provides the “Total Quality Management (TQM)” to be executed by all
departments of the organization in the “PDCA cycle” which was taken up from the traditional
business management. However, the ISO9001 does not cover the risk concept. Therefore,
the new management system was developed by adopting the risk management concept in the
present business management for the organizational management to respond to changes.
16
Asset can be all infrastructure facilities in water supply and sewerage, energy, railway, and road
sectors and so on. The ISO55001 provides the minimum requirements for the effective
operation of asset management.
The ISO55000 Series stipulates the necessary mechanisms to enable an organization to identify
the current situation of infrastructure facilities including aging, to analyze impact on potential
accidents, to make plans for efficient operation and management, and to revise them based on
verification. Figure 21 shows the relationships between components in the asset management
and the requirements in each component. To acquire the certification, the application for any
partial certification is not admitted, but all the 170 items must be satisfied.
16
Committee for Study of the Guidelines for Application of ISO55001 (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism) [Supplement for Explanatory Meeting] Edited from the Users’ Guide to Application of ISO55001 to
the sewerage field (Draft revised edition)
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Figure 22 Relationships between Components of the Asset Management System and the
Requirements in Each Component
Source: “Training Course on ISO5500X - 2013,” Kyoto Business Research Center
The ISO operating entity is composed of 24 Participating Counties and 15 Observing Countries
(as of 2014) as follows.
Participating Countries
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Netherlands,
Norway, Peru, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States
Observing Countries
Armenia, Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Iraq,
Israel, Malaysia, Morocco, New Zealand, Slovakia, Thailand
The ISO was originally established as a set of civil standards and each organization is free to
adopt it. However, the standards to guarantee and certify the level of organizational
management which is needed in the relevant fields have conventionally been derived from the
internationally common standards for industrial products, but they are increasing at present.
Also, the administrative organizations to deal with the ISO standards applicable to the public
sector are also increasing after the WTO was established.
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(2) ISO TC224 WG6: International Standard for Waterworks and Sewerage Services
The ISO TC224 is the 224
th
technical committee (TC) established in International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) in 2002 to study international standardization related to waterworks
and sewerage services. The TC held its final meeting in the Seventh General Assembly in
Tokyo in November 2007. The three new ISO24500 series standards, ISO24510 (Evaluation
and Improvement of Services), ISO24511 (Sewerage Service Management) and ISO24512
(Drinking Water Service Management), were approved and came into effect in December 2007.
In 2007, the Working Group WG6 was additionally set up to discuss the asset management of
waterworks and sewerage services. The Task Group (TG) was set up within WG6 to prepare
the international standard, “the Guidelines for the Infrastructure Asset Management (IAM) of
the waterworks and sewerage system”, but the work of preparing the Guidelines by WG6 was
suspended once because the ISO/PC251 was set up in 2011 to start the development of the asset
management standard (ISO55000 series).
At present, the Guidelines for Asset Management including the excellent cases in various
countries (4 types of water distributing pipeline, water service facility, sewerage pipeline, and
sewerage facility) are under preparation in accordance with the provisions of the ISO55000
series. The Guidelines specify the collection and collecting procedure of asset registers and
status data, the operation and maintenance, the replacement plans and enforcement thereof,
documentation and review of efficiency.
2.5.4 Infrastructure Management
In countries in which the population ages and starts to decrease, the tax revenues are also
decreasing, which makes it difficult to secure budget for new construction and maintenance of
infrastructure facilities. At the same time, as the social needs change, some existing
infrastructure facilities become no longer needed and the need for new infrastructure facilities
arises. Under the circumstances with limited financial resources, infrastructure management
measures to holistically manage various infrastructure facilities arise to maintain necessary
facilities in a good condition.
Infrastructure management is a concept to select necessary infrastructure facilities from a
long-term and holistic perspective and to keep the quality of them and service level provided by
them with limited financial resources. Specific measures taken differ depending on
environment of implementing organizations and condition of facilities.
As a specific step in Japan, comprehensive outsourcing of infrastructure management started in
2006, and Fuchu City signed a comprehensive outsourcing contract in 2012.
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3 Compare Infrastructure Management
Approaches in Developed Countries and
Assess Comparative Advantages of the
Japanese Approaches
Current Situation of Aging Infrastructure Facilities in the
3.1
U.S.A. and Europe
3.1.1 Current Situation of the Aging of Infrastructure Facilities in the
U.S.A.
As shown in Figure 1 in Chapter 2.1.1(1), the construction of infrastructure facilities was
promoted by the New Deal program in the 1930’s in the U.S.A. and continued for a long time
into the 1970’s. Since the construction of urban waterworks systems began in the latter half of
the 19th Century, there are many water supply pipeline facilities which have been in use for
more than 100 years in the U.S.A. Many infrastructure facilities in the U.S.A. therefore began
to show apparent signs of aging earlier than in Japan. The term “Crumbling America”
17
was
used to refer to the situation in the 1980’s whereby the deterioration of infrastructure facilities
was brought to public attention by numerous accidents such as the collapse of Silver Bridge,
which killed 46 people, and the U.S. Federal Government started to focus on maintenance.
(1) Problems due to deterioration
Problems due to deterioration are affecting the social life and life itself of the people in various
sectors and here are some examples resulting in bridge collapses, road cave-ins, and water
leakages due to ruptured water pipes.
1) Collapse of the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River
The Silver Bridge over the Ohio River connecting West Virginia and Ohio collapsed on
December 15, 1967 and 46 people were killed. This hanging bridge was built in 1928 and the
suspender cables were too old to tolerate the weight of many cars in a traffic jam due to
Christmas shopping and finally broke.
17
Why America’s Bridges Are Crumbling, Kenneth F. Dunker and Basile G. Rabbat, Scientific American, March
1993
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Figure 23 Scenes of the Collapse of the Silver Bridge
Source：Charlestone Daily Mail
2) Collapse of the Lakeview Drive Bridge in Pennsylvania
The middle part of the beam of the Lakeview Drive Bridge (a concrete overpass) collapsed and
fell onto Interstate 70 in Pennsylvania in 2005. Ten people were injured in the accident. The
collapse is suspected to have been caused by a combination of factors including damage to the
bottom of the beam caused by the trucks crashing into it and concrete deterioration caused by
salt damage. Although structural defects were found on the bridge in the regular inspection
conducted in the previous year, safety measures such as road closure had not been taken.
Figure 24 Scenes of the Collapse of the Lakeview Drive Bridge
3) Collapse of a Highway Bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota
The Mississippi River Bridge on Interstate 35W over the Mississippi River between St. Paul and
Minneapolis, Minnesota, collapsed on August 1, 2007. More than 60 vehicles were involved
and nine people were killed, four went missing and more than 100 were injured in the accident.
Pennsylvania
I-70 Collapse of the concrete bridge over road
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Deterioration of the structural members and insufficient maintenance/repair are the suspected
causes of the accident.
Figure 25 Scene of the Collapse of the Highway Bridge in Minneapolis
4) Water Mains Break in New York City
A water main burst in the center of Manhattan in New York City on February 2, 2013. The
break caused serious damage including disruption of the road traffic with inundation and
suspension of the subway services due to the water flowing into the stations and onto the tracks.
The broken main was installed below Fifth Avenue, in the center of New York City, in 1915.
Then, another water main broke at around 1:40 a.m. on January 15, 2014 and a large area of the
road above it caved in near Union Square, also located in Manhattan. The broken main was
installed in 1877. It took approx. five hours to stop the flow of water from the water mains.
18
Because of this accident, subway services had to be suspended temporarily and the routes of bus
services had to be changed near the site of the accident.
Figure 26 Road Caved in due to the Water Main Break (January 15, 2014)
19
18
New York Daily News
19
http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/ann/news/web/html/230202007.html ©CABLE NEWS NETWORK 2013
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5) Northeast Blackout of 2003
The Northeast Blackout that occurred in August 2003 in six states in the northeastern U.S.A.
and two states in southwestern Canada was the largest power outage in the American market,
reaching the outage scale of 61.8 million kW and affecting about 50 to 51 million people. It
took two days for power recovery and more than one week for complete recovery in all the
areas. One of the causes of the blackout was the insufficient capacity and deterioration of power
distribution facilities due to the long-term stagnation of investment in them because of emphasis
on profit resulting from deregulation of the power supply industry for flexible selection of
suppliers and uncertainness of institutional design
20
. After this accident, the Energy Policy Act
(EPAct) was enacted in 2005 to maintain and enhance reliability in power supply, resulting in
the establishment of the Electric Reliability Organization (ERO) and the provision of incentives
for transmission investments.
Figure 27 Night view during the Northeast Blackout of 2003 (Left: Normal, Right: Blackout)
Source: One Speculation on the Northeast Blackout of 2003, Development Bank of Japan
(2) Status Quo of Deterioration of Infrastructure Facilities
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has published a comprehensive evaluation of
major infrastructure facilities every four years since 1998 to identify the nationwide status quo
of infrastructure facilities. At present, there are 16 target areas in which eight evaluation
indicators are rated in five grades, A through F. Figure 23 shows the transition of these
evaluation items, evaluations of target areas in this study, and average evaluations of all the
infrastructure facilities.
21
This evaluation result shows that the average rating of all the
infrastructure facilities has remained at D, a dangerous state, since 1998, which results from a
delay in operation and maintenance and a shortage of investment. In particular, roads and
waterworks and sewerage have remained in a critical state since 1998.
20
One Speculation on the Northeast Blackout of 2003, Los Angeles Office, Development Bank of Japan, October
2003
21
Report Card for America's Infrastructure
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Figure 28 Transition of Infrastructure Evaluations by ASCE
Source: Report Card for America’s Infrastructure 2013
In fact, ASCE summarized future prospects and budgets of maintenance and replacement costs,
which demonstrate that only about half of the budgets required for maintenance are secured for
roads and waterworks and sewerage. Nevertheless, the investment in waterworks and sewerage
infrastructure facilities has increased at an average annual rate of 6.5%.
22
Figure 29 Gap between Future Prospects and Budgets for Maintenance and Replacement
in U.S.A.
Source: 2013 Report Card for America’s Infrastructure
22
A report released by the United States Conference of Mayors (2013)
877
829
846
107
11
39
16
72
15
46
84
104
271
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Surface Transportation
Energy
Rail
Airports
Inland Waterways & Marine Ports
Levees
Dams
Hazardous & Solid Waste
Water/Wastewater Infrastructure
Public Parks & Recreation
Schools
Estimated funding
Funding gap
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More than 600,000 bridges existing nationwide were built 42 years ago on average. One-ninth
of them, or one-third in terms of the area, were found to have structural problems. In other
words, the repair of large bridges is long overdue.
23
Water leakages occur at 240,000 locations a year
24
in the entire U.S.A. It is estimated that two
trillion gallons (approx. 750,000 m
3
) of treated water worth US$ 2.6 billion is lost through water
leakages every year.
In the late 1990’s, the electric power industry was deregulated to enable flexible selection of
power suppliers, resulting in a decrease of infrastructure investment. The industry still depends
on the power system constructed in the 1880’s, causing blackouts due to the deterioration of
facilities.
3.1.2 Current Situation of the Aging of Infrastructure Facilities in Europe
Since the appearance of automobiles at the end of the 19th Century, roads have been constructed
as a means of land transportation in the U.K. Many highways (motorways) have been
constructed since the end of World War II as a foundation of economic development. In order
to finance road construction, the Government of the U.K. began to create the source of revenue
for road construction in such forms as taxes on automobiles and their fuel as early as in the
1900’s. However, the infrastructure began to show apparent signs of the aging in the late
1980’s and the early 1990’s when the financial deficit of the government increased.
The Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge, whose construction was completed in 1952, collapsed in 1985.
Breaks of pre-stressing steel bars caused by insufficient grouting are the suspected cause of the
collapse. Since this accident, construction of bridges with the post-tensioning method with
grouting has been banned in the U.K.
Figure 30 Collapse of a Bridge Caused by Breaks of Pre-stressing Steel Bars
25
23
2013 Report Card for America's Infrastructure (March 2013)
24
JWRC Hot News, No. 229-2 (September 17, 2012)
25
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUg_EqQN6Gg&translated=1
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In the U.K. many water pipelines installed in the latter half of the 19th Century, including the
waterworks of Glasgow whose operation began in the 1850’s and, thus, which are called the
origin of the modern waterworks, are still in use. They are in an advanced stage of aging and
water leakage from those old pipelines is a serious problem.
As for countries besides U.K., as shown in Figure 1 in Chapter 2.1.1(1), the construction of
bridges started in the 1930’s, which is earlier than Japan, in Belgium, Germany, and Norway,
the peak of construction was later than Japan, which peaked in 1970’s. The construction was
concentrated but the peak was not as high as that of Japan.
According to the survey between 1998 and 2000, approximately 30% of the bridges were
defective and the major cause was corrosion of reinforcement bars and other steel materials.
Table 15 Major Defects of Bridges in OECD Countries
Country
No. of
bridges
Bridges on
national
highways
% of defective
bridges
Main defect
France 233,500 21,500 39%
Reinforcement corrosion
Unappropriate surface compaction
PC corrosion
Unappropriate waterproof treatment
Misestimation of temprature stress
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Germany 80,000 34,800 37%
Reinforcement corrosion
Shoddy design and workmanship
Poor shoe, joint or drainage
Overloaded vehicle
Crackup
Fire or flood
Norway 21,500 9,173 26%
Reinforcement corrosion
Freeze and meltdown
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Deteriorating paint
Shoddy workmanship and contraction of concrete
Use of seawater for concrete placement
Unstable foundation and scour
UK 155,000 10,987 30%
Reinforcement corrosion
PC corrosion
Unappropriate waterproof treatment
Misestimation of temprature stress
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Neutralization
Source: Construction Asset Management
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Maintenance costs in OECD countries were about 1% of maintenance and replacement costs in
2001.
Table 16 Maintenance Costs in OECD Countries
Unit: mill Euro
Country Bridges
Annual
maintenance
cost (1)
Annual maintenance
and replacement cost
(2)
(1) / (2)
(%)
Belgium 5,000 10 3,800 0.3
Finnland 15,000 30 2,900 1.0
Francce (Highway) 22,000 50 10,800 0.5
France (Expressway) 6,000 23 4,100 0.6
Germany (Highway) 34,600 318 30,000 1.0
UK (Highway) 9,500 225 22,500 1.0
Ireland (Highway) 1,800 2.5 450 0.6
Norway 17,000 37 6,000 0.6
Spain (Highway) 13,000 13 4,100 0.3
Sweden (Highway) 15,000 92 5,300 1.7
Source: Construction Asset Management
Against such a background, the Institute of Civil Engineers (ICE) has been summarizing the
circumstances of nationwide infrastructure facilities since 2000 and rating five evaluation
indicators in five grades in six target areas
26
. Figure 31 shows the transition of average
evaluations in the target areas of this study and the general evaluation. In this figure, the average
of all the infrastructure facilities is changing between Caution Needed and Dangerous. The
waterworks and sewerage are free of problems at present. In 1989, the governmental
corporation for waterworks and sewerage was incorporated to form a private water company.
The water company set about the replacement of treatment facilities and piping equipment,
which continued to be postponed in the days of governmental corporation, and compliance with
the new environmental standards. The company is now able to improve the cost structure and
secure the funding for investment in replacement of facilities and improvement of water and
service quality.
27
The major roads were improved to a problem-free state by 2010 owing to preventive
maintenance. If the budget is cut in the future, however, corrective maintenance will be
employed again, deteriorating the road states and making the repair cost comparatively high in
the long run. In contrast, local roads have deteriorated to a dangerous level. Due to lack of
funding, maintenance has not been conducted in many places. Furthermore, the integration and
multi-functionalization of administrative organizations are making it difficult to maintain the
26
The six target areas are 1) Energy, 2) Major traffic networks (railways, highways, airports, and harbors), 3) Local
traffic networks (local roads and local public transportation), 4) Waterworks and sewerage, 5) Flood prevention and
seashores, and 6) Waste disposal and resource management.
27
CLAIR (Council of Local Authorities for International Relations) Forum, January 2012
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specialized skills for management.
28
Figure 31 Overall Evaluation of Infrastructure Facilities in the U.K.
Source: The State of the Nation Infrastructure 2010
The budget for maintenance and replacement in the U.K. as of 2009 is estimated to be about 1.8
billion pounds out of the total infrastructure spending of 12 billion pounds.
29
Figure 32 Cost for Infrastructure Improvement in the U.K.
Source: The Office for National Statistics
28
The State of the Nation Infrastructure 2010 (The Institute of Civil Engineers)
29
The Office for National Statistics
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Approaches Taken by the Governments in the U.S.A. and
3.2
Europe
3.2.1 Approaches Taken by the U.S. Government
In the U.S.A, state governments have independent rights to decide practical matters including
infrastructure development from planning to maintenance, while the federal government is
mainly in charge of providing subsidies and research activities. For example, 62% of the
budget related to roads is used by the states, 36% by the local governments and only 2% by the
federal government.
There are different competent authorities for each sector unlike in Japan MLIT is competent in
more than 10 sectors. The competent authorities and implementing organizations for
infrastructure facilities in the U.S.A. are as follows:
The implementing organizations for roads are the national and local governments and the
competent authorities are the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
The implementing organizations for waterworks and sewerage are local governments
and the competent authority is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
The implementing organizations for railroads are private companies and the control
association of railroad operators is the Association of American Railroads (AAR).
The implementing organizations for electric power are private companies, which are
supervised by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC).
There are no regulations imposed on asset management or infrastructure management.
Regarding waterworks, the federal government is assisting local governments by providing
training and introducing best practices. However, there is growing privatization and
outsourcing of railroads, electric power supply and waterworks services because they can be
provided with the fares and fees received from users. Therefore, the public administration is
assuming the role of providing supervision only. On the other hand, the operation of toll-free
roads is directly managed by the national and local governments. Since there is no incentive
for improving infrastructure facilities because it does not increase the profit directly, the public
administration must take the lead in implementing the maintenance and replacement.
(1) Approaches Taken in Road Sector
The asset management by the public administration is the most advanced in the road sector.
The Federal government makes a comprehensive transportation funding and policy act called
the Surface Transportation Assistance Act.
30
A major specific revenue source for development
of roads is Federal Highway Trust Fund from the user taxes such as gas tax and vehicle tonnage
tax, a new use of subsidies from funds earmarked for road improvement, and expanded the use
30
Originally it was only for roads and called as Federal-Aid Highway Act.
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that was previously limited to replacement to include large-scale repairs
31
. Federal-Aid roads
were decided to be free in the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1916. The Surface Transportation
Assistance Act of 1982 added four cents to the cost of fuel dedicated to restore interstate
highways and bridges and a 1987 revision of the act enabled federal aid of up to 35% for toll
roads. Later on, as shown in
Figure 33 gas tax is further raised in the Intermodal Surface
Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA) and the following Transportation Equity Act for
the 21st Century (TEA-21) to enhance financial source for development of roads. The usage
was first limited to new construction and replacement, but later enhanced to large maintenance.
Figure 33 Change in Gas Tax and Its Usage in the U.S.A
Source: Road Bureau, MLIT
As a result budget derived from the TEA is increasing.
Table 17 Recent Surface Transportation Assistance Act and Budget
ISTEA TEA21 SAFETEA-LU
Year
1992－ 1997
1998-2003 2004-2009
Budget (bill dollars) 155.3 218.0 286.4
Source： Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency (2009)
In order to break away from the “Crumbling America,” the Federal Government planned
replacement and repair of bridges and spent the budget focusing on large replacement projects
of defective bridges. For example, in the City of New York, the total repair cost of the
Williams Bridge between 1981 and 2002 was as much as 97 billion dollars.
31
Asset Management Practices by Local Governments in Overseas and Supportive Activities by Central
Government, 39th Collection of Papers for Research Presentation for Infrastructure Planning and Management, June
2009
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Figure 34 Repair Costs of Major Bridges in City of NY (1981-2002)
This facilitated the planned spending of maintenance budget and work for extending the road
life, allowing the Government to reduce the number of defective bridges.
For the technical side, the Federal Act in 1971 had the local authorities inspect bridges strictly
and established the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS). NBIS require each state to
prepare and maintain the National Bridge Inventory (NBI) and report the result of the inspection
to FHWA. The FHWA also provided assistance to development of various types of
general-purpose software such as BBI, PONTIS, bridge inspection database software, and tried
to encourage use of such software and distributed them to states and other local authorities, and
established a qualification system and the Bridge Inspection Refresher Training in accordance
with NBIS.
States develop a pavement management system (PMS) used for maintenance of pavement
independently and try to encourage its use.
32
Furthermore, the concept of New Public Management (NPM) derived in late 1980’s to utilize
private sectors’ management principle and methods in public administration to activate
efficiency began to be used in road maintenance and that triggered the shift to asset
management.
33
In 1995 FHWA established Office of Asset Management to promote asset management through
examination, system development and to encourage its expanded use.
32
Infrastructure facility management overseas, Pacific Consultants, Defense facilities technology
quarterly, January 2004
33
Road Asset Management Handbook
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Figure 35 FHWA Organization Chart
* Renamed the Office of Asset Management, Pavements, and Construction
Source: FHWA (Effective February 2014)
Followed by NBI, PONTIS, FHWA developed Life-Cycle Cost Analysis: LCCA) in 1998. In
1999, the Highway Economic Requirements System-State Version (HERS-ST), a road
management system that optimizes the investment in improvement of roads through
cost-effective analysis, started to be introduced to states and local governments on a trial basis.
Regarding the major road segments in the U.S., this system forecasts defects in pavement, etc.
in the next 20 years, and calculates the investment costs for improvement and benefits from
improvement to derive a proper budget scale.
34
The analysis is based on the information
accumulated in the FHWA’s database, Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS), and
the data is updated every year by the administrators of state highways.
35
The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) prepared the GASB34 (GASB
Statement No.34) in 1999 and introduced the concepts of asset values and depreciation in the
accounting of infrastructure facilities. However, “modified approach” to whereby and repair
costs of infrastructure facilities without depreciation costs are accounted for, was accepted if the
quality of the O & M services is sufficiently maintained. This stimulated interest in
appropriate maintenance and activated system and database development for analysis.
In addition, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) established the “Transportation Asset Management Guide” (TAM Guide) in 2002
and “TAM Guide: A Focus on Implementation,” in 2011. This 2011 version explains each
step in the asset management from planning to implementation with a focus on implementation.
34
FHWA Website
35
Introduction to Road Management System in the U.S.A., Pacific Consultants
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Figure 36 Road Map of Transportation Asset Management Guide: A Focus on
Implementation
36
(2) Ways of raising funds
There are the following ways of raising funds for public investment applicable to infrastructure
management.
37
1) Revenue bond
Revenue bond is a municipal debt on which the payment of interest and principal depends on
revenues from the particular asset that the bond issue is used to finance. Examples of such
projects are toll roads and bridges, sewer developments, and airport expansions. Generally
speaking, a revenue bond is riskier than other municipal bonds because debt default risk is on
the bondholders. It is not considered as debt in the general account.
2) Tax-exempt bond fund
Tax-exempt bond is by a local or state government. These municipal bonds are usually used to
raise capital for improvements in infrastructure or other aspects of the municipality. They are
exempt from federal income taxes and sometimes from state and local taxes as well. Public
companies can use this scheme to raise funds for public projects if they meet the regulations.
36
AASHTO Transportation Asset Management Guide – a Focus on Implementation, Jan 2011
37
Joint research to introduce PPP for maintenance and repair of public infrastructure facilities,
Yokohama City and Mizuho Securities Co., Ltd., April 2011
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3.2.2 Approaches Taken by the Governments in Europe
Privatization is in a more advanced stage in Europe than in Japan or the U.S. Approx. 90%
and 80% of the waterworks systems are operated by private companies in the U.K. and France,
respectively.
National governments in Europe assist private participation through revision of laws. For
example, in 1955, Italy established a framework for long-term concession of toll roads to
contract out by Asienda Naxionale Autonoma delle Strada (ANAS).
38
In 1970 France
established laws to eliminate restrictions on qualification of concession companies for
construction and operation of toll roads. Concession companies can raise funds without
government guarantees and are allowed to undertake a wider range of works, which resulted in
establishment of four private concession companies.
In the 1970’s and 1980’s, the U.K. was called the “sick man of Europe”
39
and it needed
alleviation of the financial burden urgently. The U.K. Government promoted the privatization
of government-run companies as a measure to reduce the cost of operating public works through
the transformation of the “big government” to a “limited government.”
The U.K. government privatized waterworks and sewerage in 1989, electric power in 1990, and
railroads in 1997. For these areas, there are three regulatory agencies that promote competition
by private companies and supervise and regulate them from the viewpoint of consumer
protection: the Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat), the Office of Gas and Electricity
Markets (Ofgem), and the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR). Furthermore, the major road
networks are in the charge of the Highways Agency (HA) of the Department of Transport
(DfT).
In the 1990’s, the PFI and PPP methods were introduced to the infrastructure management for
the first time in the world. Then, a series of laws were enacted to eliminate obstacles to the use
of PFI contracts.
38
Survey on toll road systems in Europe, Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency, 2008
39
While the economy stagnated, the gracious social security systems and the policies such as nationalization of key
industries made the people dependent of the gracious welfare systems, lose motivation to work and critical to vested
interests.
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Table 18 Chronological Table of the Adoption of PFI by the U.K. Government
Measure
From 1979 Privatization of the state-owned enterprises (in the railway, airline, petroleum,
pharmaceutical, communication, steel and automobile industries, waterworks, etc.)
1991 New Roads and Street Works Act 1991
A law on concession
From 1992 Adoption of PFI
1993 – 1997 Establishment of the Private Finance Panel in HM Treasury as an organization to
promote PFI
1994 Deregulation and Contracting Out Act 1994
For the removal of legal obstacles to introduction of contract-based provision of
public functions
From 1997 Adoption of PPP
1997 Local Government (Contracts) Act 1997
To guarantee the legality of PFI contracts
Endowment of the authority to conclude contracts with financial institutions and to
conclude contracts including loans to the beneficiaries of the contracts from
financial institutions to local authorities in order to remove the fear of the financial
institutions on concluding contracts with local authorities
Sep. 1997 Establishment of HM Treasury Task Force as an organization to promote PFI
Sep. 1999 Dissolution of the PFI Task Force and establishment of the Office of Government
Commerce (OGC)
1999
Preparation of the guidelines for the standardization of PFI contracts
Involvement of the private sector in infrastructure management has been promoted since 2000
in accordance with the Asset Management Strategy. Since 2010, the U.K. government has been
focusing on infrastructure improvement by allocating the limited funding efficiently on the
initiative of the HM Treasury to change the system in a way to ensure the implementation of
infrastructure improvement.
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Table 19 Infrastructure Improvement Initiatives in the U.K.
Measure
2000 –
present
The State of the Nation Infrastructure, Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE)
For explicit description of the measures to be taken to improve the conditions of the land
infrastructure, the organizations evaluate the infrastructure facilities and discuss the
required measures every year to summarize them in the State of the Nation (SoN).
Published
in 2004
Revised in
2008
PAS55
40
Standards for Asset Management in the U.K. published by the British Standards Institute
(BSI) and prepared jointly by the Institute of Asset Management (IAM) and 49
organizations of 15 industries in 10 countries. Showing a management method for
maximizing the asset value of tangible assets throughout their service life and spreading
to various countries in the world as standards applicable to any type of physical asset,
developed into ISO55000 described in 2.4.1.
2008 Planning Act
Creation of a new approval system in pursuit of acceleration and transparency of
procedures for large infrastructure projects. Eight approval systems in six areas
(railways, harbors, roads, airports, waterworks, and wastes) have been integrated into
one.
2009 Infrastructure UK (I-UK)
Establishment of the government’s infrastructure-related platform.
Review of planning, prioritization, funding, and procurement in all the infrastructure
areas from a long-term view to increase the investment in replacement and maintenance
of existing infrastructure facilities that are important as the basis for economic
development.
2010 Strategy for National Infrastructure, HM Treasury
Investment strategies for 2010 through 2014 in five areas (energy, transportation,
waterworks, wastes, and communications) that contribute directly to economic
development.
Updated
every year
since 2010
National Infrastructure Plan (NIP) 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, HM Treasury
To adopt a cross-sectional strategic approach in planning, funding, and implementation,
HM Treasury establishes the overall picture of the problems concerning infrastructure in
the U.K and solutions to them and the plans of the government for the next 10 years and
beyond.
National Infrastructure Plan (NIP) 2013 stipulated the establishment of MIT (Major
Infrastructure Tracking) for monitoring the progress and a special contact department in
I-UK for project implementing bodies in order to implement the 40 projects in priority
areas defined in “Investing in Britain’s Future.”
2010 Infrastructure Cost Review 2010
The maximization of investment effects was pursued by establishing a goal for 15% cost
reduction and an action plan based on the information on civil engineering infrastructure
procurement collected from more than 300 organizations.
2013 Investing in Britain’s Future, HM Treasury
Long-term strategic plan for dealing with problems in the next 10 years for modern
infrastructure improvement. It established pioneering priority projects in the road,
housing, chemical, and energy areas, etc. and gave priorities by securing long-term fund
sources for them.
40
Publicly Available Specification
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Infrastructure Management Initiatives in the U.S.A. and
3.3
Europe
3.3.1 Infrastructure Management Initiatives in the U.S.A.
(1) Approaches Taken in Water Supply Sector
In the U.S.A., the waterworks business originated from providing water from privately owned
wells and there was a trend of reliance on private sector companies. Due to this background,
privatization and outsourcing of waterworks business has been commonly done since early
times. Later, water came to be supplied by public organizations in more and more cases for the
sake of equality of water distribution and improvement of water quality. In 2000, water was
supplied publicly by municipalities and water committees in 85% of the country and privately in
15% of it. With the anticipated demand for finance associated with replacement of aging
pipework, it is expected that more projects will be outsourced to the private sector in the
future.
41
1) Initiatives by Los Angeles Department of Water and Power
Most of the pipework of the Los Angeles city waterworks were laid down in the first half of the
20
th
century and deterioration is in progress. Figure 37 shows the percentage of pipes that
were installed 100 years ago or more. As of 2012, 20% of pipes were installed 100 years ago or
more, and at this rate the percentage will be 44% by 2021.
Figure 37 Percentage of Pipes that were Installed 100 Years Ago or More
42
41
IWA Workshop “Efficient Management of Water”, April 2005
42
Water System Rate Proposal FY 12/13 and FY 13/14 Summary and Supporting Information
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Under these circumstances, a “Ten-year Investment Program for Improvement of the Water
Supply System 2010 – 2019” has been formulated as an infrastructure investment plan, and it
was decided that a budget of approximately $6.6 billion would be allocated to four priority areas
over 10 years. The largest proportion of budget, 36%, goes to the Improvement of
Infrastructure Reliability. The investment will be made in improvements in main water pipes
and reservoirs, etc., for the Los Angeles waterworks system, with an order of priority
determined by criteria such as the extent of aging, the frequency of obstruction of function, and
fragility to earthquakes.
(2) Approaches Taken in Road Sector
As maintenance cost increases according to deterioration of roads and sluggish growth of gas
tax as funding source, long-term concessions were introduced to operate toll roads. There are
mainly two concession types: lease of toll roads in use and Design, Build, Finance and Operate
(DBFO) of new toll roads.
Table 20 Examples of Concession of Toll Roads by Type
Type Long-term lease
contract
DBFO
Contents Lease out existing
toll road to
concession company
Public organization owns toll roads and
contracts out design, construction, operation
and maintenance of new toll roads
Case Chicago Skyway
Indiana Toll Road
Pocahontas Parkway
Northwest Parkway
Dulles Greenway
South Bay Expressway
HOT lane on Ring Road
Source: Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency, 2009
Figure 38 Major Concession Toll Roads in U.S.A
Northwest Parkway
South Ba
y
Ex
p
resswa
y
Chicago Skyway
Indiana Toll Roads
Dulles Greenwa
y
HOT lane on Ring
Pocahontas Parkway
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Compared to concessions in Europe, which started earlier, concessions in U.S has the following
characteristics.
1. There are no concession companies experienced with overall management since the history
of concessions started 1995.
2. Concession is a federal policy and it takes time to introduce new administration method
through legislation in the states.
3. Concessions longer than the economic life (generally 45 years) of an infrastructure is
considered as purchase and has tax incentive to depreciate earlier than lease.
4. Concession period is long.
In Europe a concession period is generally between 30 years and 40 years, for revenue balances
with investment in 30 to 40 years.
France Generally 35 years and extends later
Italy Starting from 30 years and extends later
Spain Max 40 years and extends up to 60 years,
20 years for operation only
In the U.S.A, a concession period is longer because of tax reasons, and concession fee is rather
expensive.
Table 21 Concession Period and Fee in the U.S.A and Europe
Toll Roads Lease period Concession Fee
Chicago Skyway 99 years 1.83 bill USD
Indiana Toll Roads 75 years 3.85 bill USD
Pennsylvania TP 75 years 12.80 bill USD
Northwest Parkway 99 years 0.543 bill USD
Dulles Parkway 60 years 0.62 bill USD
Source: Japan Expressway Holding and Debt Repayment Agency, 2009
For free roads as well there is vigorous outsourcing to the private sector as a result of the 1997
assistance grants and easing of regulations on tax exemptions. The most common form of this
type is Utility Operation & Maintenance (O&M). Other formats include Management Contracts,
Design, Build and Operate (DBO), Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT), etc.43
For maintenance of roads, etc., the state of Texas was the first to comprehensively outsource
services and adopt Performance-Based Maintenance Contracting (PBMC) and later some other
states also adopted PBMC. This is a contract method that does not define the construction
43
Outline of Water supply Business in the U.S.A., December 2006, Council of Local Authorities for International
Relations
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method or quantity but the required performance. The minimum function of roads, etc., is
defined, and the contractor is paid based on whether the defined management level is being
achieved. The effects of adopting PBMC include change to long-term contracts, emphasis on
results due to performance definition, and outsourcing of multiple tasks.
44
Table 22 Time Introduced PBMC by State
State Time Introduced PDMC
Texas August 2004
Washington DC July 2005
Florida July 2005
Virginia March 2006
North Carolina June 2006
44
Outline of Performance-Based Maintenance Contracting (PBMC) in the U.S.A. and Suggestions for Japan,
Doboku Gijutsu (Civil Engineering), Vol. 66, No. 3 (March 2011), Takashi Mizuno (Yachiyo Engineering), pp. 54 –
58
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3.3.2 Infrastructure Management Initiatives in Europe
In Europe private participation started earlier than U.S.A in areas where user fees can be
expected. In the road sector, more than 70% of expressways are toll roads in France and Italy,
where most toll roads are operated by a concession company. On the other hand, in U.K. PFI
methods is used even for free roads, where public organizations pay shadow tolls to operating
companies.
(1) Infrastructure Management Initiatives in the U.K.
In the U.K., as a result of the privatization of the governmental corporations during the Thatcher
administration, from 1990 onwards public facilities were developed by the PFI method. When
PFI is adopted the cost must be compared with the case that the project is implemented by the
normal procurement method (Public Sector Comparator: PSC), to confirm that value for money
(VfM) is being obtained. The merits and expected effects of adopting the PFI method for
maintenance of public facilities are as follows.
Financial effects due to reduction in costs (large projects can be implemented without
the burden of procurement of finance)
Observance of construction period and initial contract amount
Off-balance effect (loans are removed from public accounts)
Improvement in services to the public by utilizing know how obtained in private project
Efficient implementation of work
PFI is used for operation and maintenance of free roads. The first four examples were DBFO
including connecting road of 30km between M1 and A1 in Leads City in 1995. In this L1-A1
Motorway Link Project, HA pays “shadow toll” to the concession company based on (i) travel
distance of vehicles (ii) Level of service (iii) Performance considering traffic accidents avoided
by the company’s safety plan and impact of closed traffic lanes.
The following is an introduction to examples of cities that have introduced the PFI method for
maintenance of toll-free roads.
1) Road Projects in the City of Portsmouth
In 2005, the City of Portsmouth outsourced the maintenance of a total length of 414km of road
for 25 years. The PFI project format was comprehensive outsourcing to the private sector by the
Design, Build, Finance, and Operate (DBFO) method. Initially the amount of payment was set
based on the amount of vehicle traffic (a fee set up per vehicle). However, with the change in
city government in addition to the basic service procurement costs incentives were added such
as reduction in congestion and reduction in traffic accidents, in accordance with the concept that
road service is about having roads that are open.
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Table 23 Details of Comprehensive Road Management Project in the City of Portsmouth
Project name Portsmouth Highways Management PFI Projec
t
Public sector
or
g
anizations
Local
g
overnmen
t
Portsmouth City Council
Central
government
j
urisdiction
Department for Transport: DfT
Project perio
d
2005
–
2030 operation (25 years)
Target roads Total length about 414k
m
Project
content
- Large scale repair and improvements (core investment period 5
years)
- Large scale repair and improvements (during the operation
period)
- Maintenance and operation (during the operation period)
- Inspection and maintenance (including maintenance of
appearance), cleaning (excluding collection of trash)
- Road management (excluding traffic signals)
- Issue of licenses for road use (stall holders, etc.), dealing with
third-party complaints, coordination with statutory businesses
(
electricit
y
, waterworks,
g
as
)
,etc.
Contractors
Company
(
SPV
)
Ensign Highways Ltd.
Financers
Colas UK Ltd. (50%)
Colas S.A. (50%)
Contracto
r
Colas UK Ltd.
Project cost
Contract
amoun
t
£500 million (about 120 billion yen)
Sources of
finance
City of Portsmouth £300 million (general subsidy)
DfT £200 million (of which PFI project £121 million)
Construction
cost,
maintenance
cost
Repair and
improvement
costs
Core investment period (£59 million)
Operating organization (£47 million)
Maintenance
cos
t
Operating organization (£257 million)
2) Road Projects in the City of Birmingham
In 2006, the City of Birmingham adopted Common Standards for Streetworks Management,
which contain reference guidelines and standards for those engaged in road projects, including
points to note regarding planning, construction, and maintenance.
Birmingham Highways Maintenance and Management Service covers a total length of 2,500km
in accordance with these guidelines, it is the largest road maintenance outsourcing project in
Europe, and it is managed while checking for consistency with Birmingham’s Vision for 2026.
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Table 24 Details of Comprehensive Road Management Project in the City of Birmingham
Project name Birmingham Highways Maintenance and Management Service
Public sector
or
g
anizations
Local
g
overnmen
t
Birmingham City Council
Central
government
j
urisdiction
Project period June 2010 25 years 5 years Core Investment Period (CIP)
Target roads 2,500km of highway
Project
content
- Improving the average condition of roads, carriageways and
pavements
- Replacing around 41,000 street lighting columns
- Replacement of trees in the city center area
- Tunnels with modern safety equipment
- Strengthening works to bridges
- Renewing the large number of old traffic signal controllers and
improving the Council’s capability to link its traffic management
s
y
stems with other a
g
encies
Contractors
Company
(
SPV
)
Financers
Contractor Amey plc (a subsidiary of Ferrovial)
Project cost
Contract
amoun
t
£2.7 billion
Sources of
finance
£608 million PFI Credi
t
Equates to £1.22 billion as a cash grant over the 25 years of the
contract
(
£48.9 million
p
er annum
)
3) Hounslow Borough Road Projects
In 2006, Hounslow Borough formulated the 1
st
version of its Highways Asset Management Plan
(HAMP), and the 3
rd
version was revised in 2009. This plan was produced for operation by
members of staff engaged mainly in road maintenance and management, with plans over a 1 to
5 year period, but the service standards and implementation periods, etc., were expected to be
outsourced to private companies by the PFI method. The outsourcing of the road projects to
private companies is planned for a 25 year period from 2013, including a five-year core
investment period.
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Table 25 Details of Hounslow Borough Comprehensive Road Maintenance Project
Project name Highways Maintenance Private Finance Initiative (PFI) Project
Public sector
or
g
anizations
Local
g
overnmen
t
London Borough of Hounslow
Central
government
j
urisdiction
Department for Transport: DfT
Project period January 2013 – (25 years) 5 years Core Investment Period (CIP)
Target roads 458 miles of pavements and 259 miles of roads
Project
content
- Road maintenance
- Sidewalk maintenance
- Street lights
- Bridges
- Others,
p
ublic
g
reen s
p
aces, etc.
Contractors
Company
(
SPV
)
Ringway Hounslow Highways Ltd.
Financers
Contractor VINCI Concessions (VINCI Group) Ringway (VINCI Group)
Project cost
Contract
amoun
t
£800 million
Sources of
finance
PFI credits of £267 million
Government grant of approximately £350 million spread out over 25
y
ears
(2) Infrastructure Management Initiatives in France
Continental countries such as France separate ownership and operation of infrastructure
facilities and public organizations own infrastructure and outsource operation and maintenance
to private companies. This style is called concession or lease contract (affermage). Public
organizations keep ownership to keep sustainability of public service regardless of the private
companies’ conditions.
45
1) Approaches taken in water supply
Inter-communal public cooperation entities mainly operate waterworks and sewerage in France.
As initially the waterworks business was privately operated, there are now many communes that
comprehensively outsource to the private sector. France has two major water companies,
Veolia Water and Suez Environnement, who have 25% of the world’s water and sewerage
market of 800 million people, and these two companies have great power. As of 2008 71% of
waterworks and 55% of sewerage works are outsourced to the private sector, and the contract
format in 80% of cases is a lease contract (affermage).
46
However, dissatisfaction among city residents of Paris increased due to the rapid increase in
water charges. In 2009, waterworks business was transferred back to the public sector with the
aim of setting appropriate water charges, it was reorganized from third-sector company into a
45
PPP News 2010, No. 17 Fujitsu Research Institute
46
Survey Research Report on Introduction of Private Sector Management Methods into the Water Industry 2-6,
Forms of Privatized Management and Overseas Examples, July 2006
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waterworks public company, and entrusted with operations. The policy was that profits that
were allocated to stockholder dividends and retained earnings when it was privatized would be
spent on reinvestment in order to improve services. In addition a reduction in annual costs of
€30 million was achieved as a result of rationalization associated with transfer back to the
public sector.
47
2) Approaches taken in road sector
Tolls are applied to expressways that can be financially profitable and operated by concession
companies. First toll roads started in 1955 and law amendment in 1970 allowed operation by
private companies and resulted in establishment of concession companies, most of which were
fully privatized by 2005. Based on a concession contract of 45-75 years with the central
government, concession companies construct, operate, and maintain toll roads and repay
construction costs from their toll revenue. Roads are returned to the government after the
concession period. There are 12 private companies and each company operates several lines to
balance risk.
For example, Millau Viaduct, which is a part of A75-A71 autoroute axis from Paris to Beziers
and Montpellier, was planned in 1994, and in 2001 French government and a concession
company, Eiffage, signed a 78-year concession contract including a construction period of three
years and an operation period of 75 years with structural assurance of 120 years. The
concession contract will end in 2044 if the company has earned enough by then.
Figure 39 Millau Viaduct
The contract also sets maintenance level and contracts on maintenance and toll modification
structure are renewed every five years. For bridge maintenance, specific safety guidelines for
47
CLAIR Forum, January 2012
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structures called IQUA and bridge maintenance support system called LAGORA are used and
necessary budget for maintenance is calculated based on structural states identified by IQUA
and LAGORA accumulated necessary data.
On the other hand, Contract de Partnariat, which is similar to PFI developed in U.K. was first
introduced in 2004. Private companies are in charge of design, build, finance, and operate and
public organizations payback for the service. Nearly of the half cases in the transportation
sector are applied for free roads.
3) Approaches taken in road sector
The law amendment in 2006 allowed railway sector to use PPP and PFI was applied to
construction and operation of Ligne à grande vitesse (LGV) when subsidy from the national and
local government and finance by Réseau Ferré de France (REF) was not enough and resulted in
a substantial delay in the LGV development plan. In the 2008 economy-rejuvenation plan,
French government identified the LGV development plan as a priority, which stimulated use of
PPP.
Two out of four new lines were constructed under Contrat de Partnariat and one under
concession in 2012. REF signed a 50-year concession contract with private company, LISEA of
7.8 billion Euro for LGV-SEA line connecting Tours and Bordeaux in June 2011 and a 25-year
Contrat de Partnariat for LGV-BPL line connecting Le Mans and Rennes in January 2011 and a
25-year Contrat for Nimes-Montpellier line in June 2012, with 2.5-3.5 billion Euro, which is
smaller than concession fees.
(3) Infrastructure Management Initiatives in France
In Italy 86% of expressways are toll roads and these are operated by private companies based on
concession contracts. The basic scheme is the same as that in France and contracts on
maintenance and toll modification structure are to be renewed every five year as maintenance
performance is reflected on fees. The basic concession period is 35 years and there are about 25
private concession companies.
(4) Joint Infrastructure Management Initiatives in Europe
National highway research laboratories in the U.K., France, Germany, Norway, Slovenia and
Spain undertook a project to develop a framework for a bridge management system, Bridge
Management in Europe (BRIME) for the European road network that would enable bridge
stocks to be managed on a rational basis and enable bridge maintenance to be optimized taking
account of all factors affecting bridge management.
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Figure 40 Architectural Framework of BRIME
Source: BRIME: European Commission, 2000
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New Technologies in the U.S.A. and Europe
3.4
Road inspection and repair technology in Europe is introduced as maintenance technology in the
U.S.A. and Europe. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism’s New
Technology Information System (NETIS) database, which was used in the previous section, was
used for the latest research into infrastructure management from among the projects adopted in
the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme for Research (FP7)
48
.
Table 26 New Major Technologies Used in Europe
Application Type Technology
Bridge Inspection Technologies Technical Research into Rapid Inspection of Concrete
Bridges by the Non-destructive Method
Bridge Deck Diagnosis Technology
Road Repair Technologies Repair Technology Using Ultra Violet Cured Glass Fiber
Reinforced Plastic Sheet
Development of Resin Material for Repairing Asphalt
Pavement
Railway Inspection Technology Subway Monitoring System Using Wireless Connections
48
A framework research program covering the period 2007 to 2013 to strengthen links and complementarity between
the initiatives and policies of each of the countries of the EU and the EU’s initiatives and funding.
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Classification: Road Inspection Technology
Name: Technical Research into Rapid Inspection of Concrete Bridges by the Non-destructive
Method
Explanation of the function
This is a monitoring system for determining the integrity of bridges by measuring the internal state
of the concrete which cannot be inspected visually, using the advantages of the measurement
technologies of ground penetrating radar and ultrasonic guided waves. The continued research and
development is in progress so that measuring instruments can be incorporated into structures for
monitoring in the future.
Use
The coordinates of the positions of the reinforcement within the concrete are measured with the
ground penetrating radar, and the inspection determines the position of cracking or corrosion of
reinforcement if occurred. A 3-dimensional model produced by a system to which measuring
instruments can be quickly connected can be checked.
Effect
The structure integrity survey results can be quickly obtained, so it is economical.
Traffic restrictions are not necessary during inspection.
The interior of concrete, which cannot be visually inspected, can be measured.
It is possible to prevent the occurrence of major accidents.
Applicability in Thailand
This technology has been developed to monitor structures using built-in measuring instruments
in them in the future and does not require traffic restriction nor have an impact on the
surrounding environment. In Thailand, especially in Bangkok, where traffic congestion often
occurs, an inspection method that does not require traffic restriction is assumed to be applicable.
Developer of the technology
Developers: TWI Ltd. (leading company: UK), NTUA (Greece), Technology Assistance BCNA
2010 s. l. (Spain), INETEC (Croatia), Acutech Ltd. (Greece), Atkins plc. (UK)
References: CROSS-IT Project HP http://www.crossit-project.eu/
European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme for Research Website
http://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/57182_en.html
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Classification: Road Inspection Technology
Name: Bridge Deck Diagnosis Technology
Explanation of the function
This bridge deck assessment tool has been developed to acquire somewhat detailed soundness data
using grounding technologies such as impact echo, ground penetrating radar (GPR), and electrical
resistance methods.
Use
A non-destructive assessment robot, “RABIT
TM
that has a Panoramic Camera, High-Definition
Imaging, Electrical Resistivity, Impact Echo and Ultrasonic Surface Waves, GPR, and GPS is used
to inspect the conditions of concrete surface and inside of the bridge deck. Data is immediately
collected via a wireless network.
Functions of Non-Destructive Assessment Robot for Bridge Deck, RABIT
TM
Effect
The time for traffic restriction during inspection can be shortened.
The soundness inspection of a structure allows the user to acquire the results immediately and is
economical.
Applicability in Thailand
This technology facilitates diagnosing the concrete surface and inside and is assumed to be highly
applicable in Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developer: Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
References:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/research/tfhrc/programs/infrastructure/structures/ltbp/ltbpresearch/rabit/ind
ex.cfm
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Classification: Road Repair Technology
Name: Repair Technology Using Ultra Violet Cured Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Sheet
Explanation of the function
This is a technology for repair of corroded parts and prevention of corrosion to steel road structures
(lighting columns, bridges, pedestrian footbridges, etc.).
Use
The old paint film is removed from the construction surface, and FRP sheet made from polyester cut
to the required size is applied to the location of the repair. The repair location is irradiated with ultra
violet light to harden it.
Construction Example
Effect
This technology can be applied easily.
The construction time from application of the sheet to hardening is short.
Applicability in Thailand
This method enables repair of corroded parts and preventive maintenance for a wide range of steel
structures on roads and is assumed to be highly applicable in Thailand.
Developer of the technology
Developers: FibreTech (UK)
References:
http://www.netis.mlit.go.jp/NetisRev/Search/NtDetail1.asp?REG_NO=CB-990022&TabType=2&nt
=nt
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Classification: Road Repair Technology
Name: Development of Resin Material for Repairing Asphalt Pavement
Explanation of the function
A low-viscosity resin that can be chemically synthesized is under development as a repair material
for reinforcement, cracks, potholes, and joints of asphalt pavement.
Use
A low-viscosity resin material is infiltrated into asphalt to reinforce the binding of aggregate and
reduce openings. It is also possible to make a dual layer consisting of a resin-infiltrated layer and a
highly dense asphalt layer.
Figure Cross-section of Resin-Infiltrated Asphalt
Effect
This resin material will have superior moisture resistance and durability and reduce the
maintenance cost in a long term.
Applicability in Thailand
This technology, if commercialized, will enable reinforcement and repair of asphalt pavement in a
simple way and is assumed to be highly applicable in Thailand.
Developer of the technology
References: Technical Innovation Program by National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST)
Materia Inc (Pasadena, CA), The Regents of the University of California, (UCLA) (Los Angeles,
CA)
http://www.nist.gov/tip/upload/UCLA-NIST-3-14-14.pdf
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Comparative Advantages of Japan Compared with the
3.5
U.S.A. and Europe
This section examines the infrastructure initiatives in the U.K. described so far as an example in
Europe and compares the infrastructure management initiatives in the U.S.A., U.K., and Japan
to verify in which technologies Japan has a technical advantage.
Table 27 Comparison of Infrastructure Management Initiatives in Japan, U.S.A. and U.K.
Item Japan U.S.A. Europe (mainly U.K.)
Comprehensive infrastructure management policies and initiatives
Basic policies of
infrastructure
management
Life extension of all
necessary facilities in the
future.
NPM
(Apply management
principle of private sector
to activate efficiency
Concentrated
investment in priority
projects.
Initiatives of
infrastructure
management
The central government
manifests comprehensive
basic policies and requires
all the infrastructure
administrators to establish
action plans.
Due to the federal
system, state and local
municipalities conducts
sector-by-sector
management.
Promote active private
participation by law
amendment and
periodic quality check .
Utilization of
private companies
Comprehensive
outsourcing of multiple
tasks to private companies.
Outsourcing to private
companies (such as O&M
and BOT).
Privatization.
PFI and concession.
Area-by-area infrastructure management systems and national-level initiatives
Roads Roads are managed by the
central government and
municipalities under
MLIT. Outsourcing to
private companies is also
used.
The toll expressways were
privatized.
Roads are managed by
the central government
and municipalities under
FHWA. Outsourcing to
private companies is also
used.
Roads are managed by
the central government
and municipalities
under HA. Outsourcing
to private companies is
also used.
Roads:
National-level
initiatives
The basic plan for life
extension requires all the
infrastructure
administrators to establish
individual plans.
Federal government
assists municipalities’
initiatives by providing
regulations and
maintenance systems
Law amendment and
periodic check to
promote private
participation
Waterworks Water is supplied by
public water corporations
of municipalities under the
control of the central
government.
Waterworks by
municipalities is
outsourced to private
companies.
Owned by
municipalities and
outsourced to private
companies.
Waterworks:
National-level
initiatives
The infrastructure
administrators are required
to establish a local
waterworks vision.
Federal government
assists municipalities’
initiatives by providing
information, etc.
Law amendment and
periodic check to
promote private
participation
Sewerage Municipalities are the
implementing
organizations of sewerage
under the control of MLIT.
Sewerage is mostly
implemented by
municipalities but is often
outsourced to private
companies.
Owned by
municipalities and
outsourced to private
companies.
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Sewerage:
National-level
initiatives
The basic plan for life
extension requires all the
infrastructure
administrators to establish
individual plans.
Federal government
assists municipalities’
initiatives by providing
information, etc.
Law amendment and
periodic check to
promote private
participation
Railways Privatization Privatization Privatization
Power supply Privatization Privatization Privatization
In Japan, the central government plays a major role as the competent authority even if a
municipality is the implementing organization. For infrastructure management, too, the central
government promotes the life extension and formulates specific policies for infrastructure
facilities. Furthermore, the central government requires the infrastructure administrators to
formulate action plans by showing the formulation method. It provides specific instructions as
technical assistance for formulation of plans so that management activities are implemented
throughout Japan. In contrast, the U.S.A. has a federal system so that the federal government
does not take the lead in the comprehensive initiative for infrastructure management across
several sectors. On the other hand, European governments provide assistance to develop
environment for private participation.
In areas other than power supply and railway operation that have already been mostly
privatized, the utilization of private companies is as follows: In Japan, municipalities are
outsourcing multiple tasks to private companies in lump-sum contracts because the road
administration agency is specified by law and outsourcing to an external party is prohibited. In
the U.S.A., operation and maintenance of profitable facilities are outsourced to private
companies. The European government is actively introducing the PPP/PFI methods to
infrastructure facilities which can generate user fees.
The management of toll-free roads is either the responsibility of the central government or
municipalities and the competent authority, develops and provides implementation-oriented
asset management guidelines and road management systems. The U.K. uses PPP/PFI for
toll-free roads by paying shadow tolls to operating companies.
Regarding waterworks, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare is taking the lead
in the initiatives for promoting infrastructure management to ensure appropriate maintenance
ahead of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. In the U.S.A. and U.K.,
no central-government-led comprehensive initiatives like those of Japan are found probably
because water has been historically supplied by private companies. The same goes for sewerage.
Regarding individual technologies, Japan has a comparative advantage over the U.S.A. and
U.K. in terms of skills for safe work on roads, which are often narrow and leading to intricate
alleyways, and in terms of durable materials in a climate with large annual temperature
variations and many natural disasters such as typhoons and earthquakes. Granted that Japan
often uses technologies that have been imported from Western countries, some of them have
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been improved and localized to suit the urban structures and climate of Japan.
Table 28 lists the technologies in which the advantages of Japan are acknowledged.
Table 28 Classification of Japanese Technologies and Know-how that are More Easily
Applied than those of the U.S.A. and Europe
Category Technologies
Overall structure Work steps for replacement where there are narrow roads
Inspection
(Road)
Crack measuring system
Concrete soundness diagnosis portable kits
(waterworks and sewerage)
Camera survey of inside water pipe
Repair,
reinforcement,
Replacement
(Road)
Highly durable epoxy adhesive
Reinforcement by carbon fiber sheet
Concrete removal prevention etc.
(waterworks and sewerage)
SPR Engineering
Seamless System Engineering
EX Engineering
Therefore, the advantages of Japan over the Western countries are found in the national-level
planning of comprehensive infrastructure management across several sectors, systems and
methods for providing assistance to infrastructure administrators in planning, initiatives of
municipalities in the waterworks and sewerage, technologies for working in narrow and intricate
roads, and material technologies in consideration of earthquake resistance and disaster
prevention functions.
