AGE DETERMINATION GUIDELINES:
Relating Consumer Product Characteristics to the
Skills, Play Behaviors, and Interests of Children
January 2020
CPSC STAFF DOCUMENT
Revised by:
Melissa N. Richards, Ph.D., Diane L. Putnick, Ph.D.,
Joan T.D. Suwalsky, M.A., & Marc H. Bornstein, Ph.D.,
Child and Family Research Section, Eunice Kennedy Shriver
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD),
National Institutes of Health (NIH),
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS)
Khalisa H. Phillips, Ph.D., Psychologist
Jill Hurley, M.A., Engineering Psychologist
Division of Human Factors
Directorate of Engineering Sciences
U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
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(800) 638-2772 CPSC Hotline
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This document was revised by NICHD and CPSC staff under Interagency Agreement #CPSC-I-14-0016 and has
not been reviewed by, and does not necessarily reflect the views of, the Commission.
CPSC staff will begin using the 2020 Age Determination Guidelines on
June 1st, 2020, at which time the 2020 Guidelines will supersede the
2002 Guidelines.
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CONTENTS
Page
PRODUCT SUBCATEGORY INDEX ........................................................................................ III
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................ 3
Small Parts Regulation ............................................................................................................... 3
Use and Abuse Testing............................................................................................................... 4
Age Labeling and Determinations ............................................................................................. 5
Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act ............................................................................. 6
ASTM F963 Toy Safety Standard.............................................................................................. 7
Children’s Toy ........................................................................................................................... 9
Child Care Article ...................................................................................................................... 9
Children’s Products .................................................................................................................... 9
A USER GUIDE TO THE AGE DETERMINATION GUIDELINES ........................................ 11
History of the Age Determination Guidelines ......................................................................... 11
Organization of the Age Determination Guidelines................................................................. 12
CHILDREN’S BASIC ABILITIES AND PREFERENCES ........................................................ 19
EXPLORATORY AND PRACTICE PLAY ................................................................................ 29
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ......................................................................................... 31
Push & Pull Toys ..................................................................................................................... 45
BUILDING PLAY ........................................................................................................................ 55
Blocks ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................... 71
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY.......................................................................................................... 81
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................... 83
Play Scenes & Puppets ............................................................................................................. 99
Dress-Up Materials ................................................................................................................ 109
Small Vehicle Toys ................................................................................................................ 121
Tools & Props ........................................................................................................................ 135
GAME & ACTIVITY PLAY ..................................................................................................... 147
Puzzles.................................................................................................................................... 149
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games ...................................................................................... 159
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SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY ................................................................ 169
Ride-On Toys ......................................................................................................................... 171
Recreational Equipment ......................................................................................................... 181
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................... 197
MEDIA PLAY ............................................................................................................................ 207
Arts & Crafts .......................................................................................................................... 209
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................... 223
EDUCATIONAL & ACADEMIC PLAY .................................................................................. 237
Books ..................................................................................................................................... 239
Learning Products .................................................................................................................. 253
TECHNOLOGY PLAY .............................................................................................................. 263
Smart Toys & Educational Software...................................................................................... 265
Audiovisual Equipment .......................................................................................................... 277
Computer & Video Games ..................................................................................................... 293
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 307
PRODUCT INDEX .................................................................................................................... 323
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PRODUCT SUBCATEGORY INDEX
Page
Arts & Crafts ............................................................................................................................... 209
Audiovisual Equipment .............................................................................................................. 277
Blocks ........................................................................................................................................... 57
Books .......................................................................................................................................... 239
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games ........................................................................................... 159
Computer & Video Games.......................................................................................................... 293
Dolls & Stuffed Toys .................................................................................................................... 83
Dress-Up Materials ..................................................................................................................... 109
Interlocking Building Materials .................................................................................................... 71
Learning Products ......................................................................................................................... 15
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives .............................................................................................. 31
Musical Instruments .................................................................................................................... 223
Play Scenes & Puppets.................................................................................................................. 99
Push & Pull Toys .......................................................................................................................... 45
Puzzles ........................................................................................................................................ 149
Recreational Equipment .............................................................................................................. 181
Ride-On Toys .............................................................................................................................. 171
Small Vehicle Toys ..................................................................................................................... 121
Smart Toys & Educational Software .......................................................................................... 265
Sports Equipment ........................................................................................................................ 197
Tools & Props ............................................................................................................................. 135
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INTRODUCTION
The 2020 U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission Staff (CPSC staff) document titled, Age
Determination Guidelines: Relating Consumer Product Characteristics to the Skills, Play
Behaviors, and Interests of Children, supersedes the (2002) Age Determination Guidelines:
Relating Children’s Ages to Toy Characteristics and Play Behavior.
This document presents age-grading information in the form of guidelines for toys and other
articles, children’s toys, child care articles, and children’s products. CPSC staff performs age
determinations, in which the various characteristics of a consumer product are matched to the
skills, play behaviors, and interests of children in a particular age group. For manufacturers, age
grading is an important step in developing, marketing, and labeling consumer products. Using
information from the Age Determination Guidelines to determine whether a general use product
would be appropriate for children is an important consideration for them as well. Once
manufacturers determine a target age for a product through age grading, CPSC staff encourages
manufacturers to label, promote, and market it to that age group. Accurate age labels provide
parents and other consumers with guidance for selecting age-appropriate products for children.
CPSC’s regulations have long required that consumer products be constructed to withstand the
reasonably foreseeable uses and abuses of children within specified age groups. The Consumer
Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008 (CPSIA) imposed new obligations, such as requiring
manufacturers of children’s products to certify, based on third-party testing, that their products
meet CPSC standards. The results of age determinations directly impact the type and severity of
mechanical and chemical tests the samples may subsequently undergo to identify potential
hazards.
Additions and updates to the age groups for products found in the revised Age Determination
Guidelines are based on (1) observational research of children’s play with products by Child and
Family Research at NICHD/NIH under Interagency Agreement CPSC-I-14-0016, (2) public
comments received by the CPSC, and (3) age grading by CPSC Human Factors staff. Staff has
updated/expanded the Introduction, titling the new chapters, Background, and A User Guide to
the Age Determination Guidelines. The Background chapter provides an overview of the relevant
Introduction
2
statutes, regulations, and standards that are frequently consulted for age grading. The User Guide
chapter provides a brief history of the Age Determination Guidelines, as well as information on
how the material is organized.
The guidance found in the following Background chapter is provided for convenience and may
not necessarily reflect the latest version of the regulations in the CFR or other applicable statutes.
Check the applicable statutes and regulations to determine the current requirements for an
applicable law. For further guidance, you can also visit CPSC’s Business Education website at:
https://cpsc.gov/Business--Manufacturing/Business-Education.
The Age Determination Guidelines explain how CPSC staff develops its assessment of ages for
consumer products. The Age Determination Guidelines are not a mandatory rule, and CPSC will
not enforce them as such. Rather, they present CPSC staff’s views on age grading.
Manufacturers and others may use the Age Determination Guidelines to help them determine the
appropriate age group for their product(s).
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BACKGROUND
Established in 1972 by the Consumer Product Safety Act (CPSA),
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the CPSC is charged with
protecting consumers from unreasonable risks of injury associated with consumer products. To
accomplish this goal, CPSC develops standards, pursues recalls, and in certain circumstances,
issues bans on products that are intended for children of certain ages. Additionally, CPSC
enforces numerous regulations under other statutes, some of which apply to products for children
within specific age groups. For example, CPSC administers the Federal Hazardous Substances
Act (FHSA),
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under which it has issued certain regulations regarding toys and other articles. The
Child Safety Protection Act (CSPA) of 1994 amended sections of the FHSA to require labeling
of certain products that pose a choking hazard to children within a specified age range (e.g.,
small balls, balloons, marbles). The Labeling of Hazardous Art Materials Act (LHAMA),
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amended the FHSA to require labeling of all art materials determined to have a potential chronic
hazard for health. One regulation issued under the FHSA with very specific age-specific
requirements is the Small Parts Regulation.
Small Parts Regulation
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In 1979, the Commission issued a regulation under provisions of the FHSA to ban certain toys
and other articles that are intended for use by children under 3 years of age, if they present a
choking, aspiration, or ingestion hazard because of small parts. This regulation, known as the
Small Parts Regulation, is found in 16 CFR §§ 1500.18(a)(9), 1500.50–.52, and part 1501.
Introduction or delivery for introduction into interstate commerce of a banned item is a
prohibited act under section 4 of the FHSA and subjects the firm to the penalties described in
section 5 of the FHSA. The regulation does not apply to toys or other articles that are solely
intended for use by children 3 years of age and older, or to toys and other articles that children
2
Consumer Product Safety Act (CPSA) of 1972. PL 92-573. Available at https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-
public/pdfs/blk_media_cpsa.pdf?epslanguage=en
3
Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA) of 1960. PL 86-613. Available at https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-
public/pdfs/blk_pdf_fhsa.pdf
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Labeling of Hazardous Art Materials Act (LHAMA) of 1988. PL 100-695. Available at:
https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/pdfs/blk_pdf_fhsa.pdf
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LHAMA amended the FHSA and adopted ASTM D-4236 as a regulation
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This abbreviated description of the Small Parts Regulation does not replace or supersede any requirements
published in 16 CFR §§1500.18(a)(9), 1500.50–53, and part 1501.
Background
4
under 3 years of age might have access to simply because of the products’ presence in the
household. For a detailed list of toys and other articles covered by, and exempted from, this
regulation, see 16 CFR part 1501. The Small Parts Regulation specifies the equipment and test
method used to determine whether a toy or other article presents a choking, aspiration, or
ingestion hazard because the product itself, or any part of the product that could be detached or
broken off during normal or reasonably foreseeable use and abuse, is a small part. (See 16 CFR
§1501.4 for further details.) If the toy or other article being tested fits entirely within the cylinder
used for testing, it is considered a small part. If it does not, it is subjected to use and abuse test
procedures.
Use and Abuse Testing
CPSC established test procedures to simulate normal or reasonably foreseeable use, damage, or
abuse to which toys and other articles intended for use by children may be subjected. These test
procedures are found in 16 CFR §§1500.50–53; The regulation at 16 CFR §1500.51 specifies test
procedures and forces that simulate use and abuse of toys and other articles intended for use by
children 18 months or younger; 16 CFR §1500.52 specifies test procedures and forces that
simulate use and abuse of toys and other articles intended for use by children over 18 months
old, but not over 36 months of age. Any toy or other article intended for children under 3 years
of age that has undergone use and abuse testing with resulting detached or liberated parts that fit
entirely within the small parts test cylinder is banned. The regulation at 16 CFR §1500.53
specifies test procedures and forces that simulate use and abuse of toys and other articles
intended for use by children over 36 months but not over 96 months of age.
The five use and abuse tests specified in the Small Parts Regulation are impact, torque, tension,
flexure, and compression. If these forces cause parts to break off that fit in the cylinder, those
parts present a risk of choking, aspiration, or ingestion to children under 3 years of age. Table 1
lists the criteria for each test, depending on the age of child for whom the toy or other article is
intended. Except for the tension test, each test method shall be applied to a previously untested
sample. The tension test shall be applied to the same sample used in the torque test.
Background
5
Table 1. Criteria in Small Parts Regulation Tests
Age Labeling and Determinations
Age labeling provides parents and other consumers guidance for selecting proper products for
children. CPSC staff, therefore, encourages age labeling. However, age labeling must be
accurate. It is to the manufacturer’s or importer’s advantage to determine accurately the intended
age group for their products, and to label, promote, and market those products to that age group.
If CPSC staff tests a toy or other article for small parts when the product is not clearly and
conspicuously age-labeled, or is age-labeled inappropriately, CPSC staff performs the most
stringent test from the two age groups for children under 3 years of age. For example, if a toy is
labeled for children spanning more than one age group under 3 years (e.g., “12 to 24 mos.”),
CPSC staff subjects it to the most stringent use and abuse tests for children 18 months or less,
and over 18 but not over 36 months of age. If CPSC staff determines that the same toy is
intended for children under 3 years of age, it is subjected to the Small Parts Regulation,
regardless of its age labeling.
For a firm to know whether the Small Parts Regulation applies to a particular toy or other article,
the firm must determine the age of the child for whom the product is intended. For the Small
Parts Regulation, the factors used to assist in determining which toys and other articles are
intended for use by children under 3 years of age are found in 16 CFR § 1501.2(b) and involve
evaluating: (1) the manufacturer’s stated intent, if reasonable, (2) the advertising, promotion and
marketing, and (3) common recognition. A table containing the exact wording of the above
criteria appears later in the chapter.
Impact
Flexure
Torque
Tension
Compression
18 Months of Age
or Less
(16 CFR § 1500.51)
10 drops
from
4.5 ft ± 0.5 in
120° Arc
30 Cycles
10 lb ± 0.5 lb
2 lbf-in
± 0.2 lbf-in
10 lb
± 0.5 lb
20 lb
± 0.5 lb
Over 18 but Not Over
36 Months of Age
(16 CFR § 1500.52)
4 drops
from
3 ft ± 0.5 in
120° Arc
30 Cycles
15 lb ± 0.5 lb
3 lbf-in
± 0.2 lbf-in
15 lb
± 0.5 lb
25 lb
± 0.5 lb
Over 36 but Not Over
96 Months of Age
(16 CFR § 1500.53)
4 drops
from
3 ft ± 0.5 in
120° Arc
30 Cycles
15 lb ± 0.5 lb
4 lbf-in
± 0.2 lbf-in
15 lb
± 0.5 lb
30 lb
± 0.5 lb
Background
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Regarding small parts, CPSC staff performs age determinations in which the various
characteristics of a toy or other article are matched to the characteristics of children in a
particular age group to determine whether it is intended for children under 3 years of age. For
example, children from 12 months through 18 months of age enjoy toys with bright colors,
especially yellows and reds, and toys with high contrast and patterns. Therefore, toys with
characteristics such as these may be considered appropriate for children of this age. As specified
in the Small Parts Regulation, staff also considers how the toy or other article is labeled,
marketed, advertised, and promoted. Although small parts that present a hazard are clearly
inappropriate for children under 3 years of age, the mere presence of small parts does not
preclude the possibility that CPSC staff would determine that product is intended for children
under the age of 3. Rather, when evaluating a product for age appropriateness, one ought to
consider whether parents and others would purchase the product for children under 3 years of
age, based on its characteristics and the characteristics of children of this age.
Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act
In 2008, Congress passed the CPSIA,
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giving the Commission new regulatory and enforcement
tools for addressing mechanical and chemical safety hazards in consumer products that are
intended for children. Most notable for age grading, the law (1) mandated the ASTM F963
Standard Consumer Safety Specification for Toy Safety as a consumer product safety standard
(incorporated by reference in 16 CFR part 1250), and (2) added a definition of “children’s
product” in the CPSA. A children’s product is “a consumer product designed or intended
primarily for children 12 years of age or younger.” 15 USC 2052(a)(2). The definition states four
factors to consider. A manufacturer’s statement about intended use is one factor, but is not
determinative. The Age Determination Guidelines are the fourth criterion to consider when
determining what constitutes a “children’s product” under the CPSA.
The CPSIA also added requirements that consumer products that are “children’s products” must
be labeled with tracking labels and have valid Children’s Product Certificates (CPCs), based on
passing third-party test results from a CPSC-accepted laboratory. According to section 101 of
7
Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA) of 2008. Pub. L. No. 110-314. Available at:
https://cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/pdfs/blk_pdf_cpsia.pdf
Background
7
CPSIA, children’s products cannot contain more than 100 parts per million (ppm) of total lead
content (substrate) or 90 ppm of lead in paint or other surface coatings. Additionally, products
meeting the “children’s toy” or “child care article” definitions are subject to specified phthalates
prohibitions in CPSIA section 108 and 16 CFR part 1307. The regulation at 16 CFR part 1307
made some changes to the list of prohibited phthalates in the CPSIA. Table 2 outlines the
relevant statutory and regulatory definitions and evaluation criteria that are applicable to age
grading.
ASTM F963 Toy Safety Standard
ASTM F963
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Standard Consumer Safety Specification for Toy Safety is a comprehensive safety
standard covering performance requirements and test methods for addressing a wide range of
safety hazards in toys that are intended for children under 14 years of age (includes 13-year-old
children). The status of ASTM F963 as a mandatory standard greatly expanded the scope and
need for age grading by CPSC staff, given the myriad age-specific requirements, wider age
range, and types of toys covered. The standard contains performance specifications to address a
wide range of mechanical safety hazards (e.g., projectiles, batteries, strings and cords, noise,
magnets, and expanding materials), as well as chemical hazards (e.g., lead, cadmium, antimony,
arsenic, barium, chromium, mercury, and selenium), in toys. Many of the performance
requirements in the standard have age limits, which were developed in response to known safety
hazards and/or the expected cognitive, physical development, and interests of children in a
certain age group. CPSC staff often determines whether a toy meets the following definition in
ASTM F963 section 3.1.91: “toy - any object designed, manufactured, or marketed as a
plaything for children under 14 years of age.” If the product is a toy under the standard, staff may
conduct a more extensive evaluation to determine the most appropriate age group. One reference
that staff consults is Annex A1: Age Grading Guidelines found at the back of ASTM F963. The
annex covers the purpose and objectives of age labeling, criteria to consult, sources of
information or “tools,” and how to factor in safety concerns when age grading. Furthermore, the
annex references CPSC’s Age Determination Guidelines for age grading
8
ASTM Standard F963, Standard Consumer Safety Specification for Toy Safety (2017). ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2003, www.astm.org
.
8
Background
Table 2. Definitions and Evaluation Criteria
Category
Definition
Evaluation Criteria (Variations in bold)
Source(s)
1) Toy or other
article for children
under 3 years
None
“1) The manufacturer’s stated intent (such as on a label) if it is a
reasonable one;
2) The advertising, promotion, and marketing of the article;
3) Whether the article is commonly recognized as being intended for children
under 3.”
16CFR §1501.2(b)
2) Toy
“Any object designed,
manufactured, or marketed
as a plaything for children
under 14 years of age.”
None
ASTM F963-17 §3.1.91
3) Children’s toy
“A consumer product
designed or intended by the
manufacturer for a child 12
years of age or younger, for
use by the child when the
child plays.”
“(i) A statement by a manufacturer about the intended use of such product,
including a label on such product if such statement is reasonable.
“(ii) Whether the product is represented in its packaging, display, promotion,
or advertising as appropriate for use by children of the ages specified.
(iii) Whether the product is commonly recognized by consumers as being
intended for use by a child of the ages specified.
(iv) The Age Determination Guidelines issued by the Commission staff in
September 2002 and any successor to such guidelines.”
CPSIA §108(b)(3)(e)(1)(B)
4) Child care
article
“A consumer product
designed or intended by the
manufacturer to facilitate
sleep or the feeding of
children age 3 and younger,
or to help such children with
sucking or teething.”
Same as 3) Children’s toy
CPSIA §108(b)(3)(e)(1)(C)
5) Children’s
product
“A consumer product
designed or intended
primarily for children 12
years of age or younger.”
‘‘(A) A statement by a manufacturer about the intended use of such
product, including a label on such product if such statement is
reasonable.
(B) Whether the product is represented in its packaging, display, promotion,
or advertising as appropriate for use by children 12 years of age or younger.
(C) Whether the product is commonly recognized by consumers as being
intended for use by a child 12 years of age or younger.
(D) The Age Determination Guidelines issued by the Commission staff in
September 2002, and any successor to such guidelines.”
CPSA §3(a)(2)
16 CFR §1200.2(b)
Background
9
Children’s Toy
In determining whether the prohibited phthalates requirements apply to a particular product,
CPSC staff may evaluate whether the product meets the definition of a “children’s toy” under
CPSIA section 108(b)(3)(e)(1)(B). The law at § 108(g)(1)(B) defines “children’s toy” as “a
consumer product designed or intended by the manufacturer for a child 12 years of age or
younger, for use by the child when the child plays.” Section 108(g)(2) of the CPSIA lists four
criteria to determine whether a product meets the definition of “children’s toy.” Staff applies
those criteria in the same manner as the similar four criteria for the definition of “children’s
product” in section 3(a)(2) of the CPSA.
Child Care Article
In determining whether the prohibited phthalates requirements apply to a particular product,
CPSC staff may evaluate whether the product meets the definition of a “child care article” in
CPSIA. The term “child care article” is defined in section 108(b)(3)(e)(1)(C) of the CPSIA as a
“consumer product designed or intended by the manufacturer to facilitate sleep or the feeding of
children age 3 and younger, or to help such children with sucking or teething.” Staff uses the
same criteria to make determinations of children's toys in section 108 as it uses to identify
products as a “child care article.”
Children’s Products
CPSC staff often evaluates whether a consumer product meets the definition of a “children’s
product” in section 3(a)(2) of the CPSA, as amended by the CPSIA in 15 USC 2052(a)(2). The
law defines a “children’s product” as “a consumer product designed or intended primarily for
children 12 years of age or younger.” Similar to the criteria in the Small Parts Regulation for
evaluating age appropriateness of toys and other articles for children under 3 years of age, the
first three criteria in the CPSIA definition mention evaluating the manufacturer’s stated intent;
marketing, advertising, and promotion; and common recognition. Differences between the Small
Parts Regulation criteria and the definition of “children’s product” under the CPSA include: (1)
the addition within the third criterion to make the evaluation based on common recognition by
consumers that the product is intended for use by a child 12 years of age or younger; and (2) the
Background
10
addition of a fourth criterion: “the Age Determination Guidelines issued by the Commission staff
in September 2002, and any successor to such guidelines.”
In October 2010, the Commission issued a final interpretive rule providing guidance on the
criteria that CPSC considers when evaluating what is deemed a “children’s product” under the
CPSA in 16 CFR part 1200.
9
The regulation contains a description of common features
associated with children’s products (e.g., small sizes, exaggerated features, juvenile decals,
licensed themes), as well as guidance and examples to assist users in making product
determinations.
CPSC staff consults the following definition of “general use product” found in 16 CFR §
1200.2(b)”: . . . a consumer product that is not designed or intended primarily for use by children
12 years old or younger. General use products are those consumer products designed or intended
primarily for consumers older than age 12. Some products may be designed or intended for use
by consumers of all ages, including children 12 years old or younger, but are intended mainly for
consumers older than 12 years of age.” If a consumer product does not meet the definition of a
“children’s product,” then staff may consider it to be a general use product.
9
75 FR 198 (October 14, 2010), accessible at: https://cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/pdfs/blk_pdf_childprod.pdf (docket
number CPSC-2010-0029).
11
A USER GUIDE TO THE AGE DETERMINATION GUIDELINES
History of the Age Determination Guidelines
The CPSC staff document entitled, Guidelines for Relating Children’s Ages to Toy
Characteristics, written in 1985,
10
was the original document used to assist CPSC staff in
performing age determinations for toys and other articles to determine the applicability of the
Small Parts Regulation. In 2002, the CPSC staff document entitled, Age Determination
Guidelines: Relating Children’s Ages to Toy Characteristics and Play Behavior,
11
superseded
the 1985 Guidelines for Relating Children’s Ages to Toy Characteristics.
In 2014, CPSC entered into an interagency agreement with the Child and Family Research group
within NICHD/NIH
12
to conduct research and make updates to the (2002) Age Determination
Guidelines. The NICHD research team conducted a literature review and a research study to
evaluate the age appropriateness of consumer products through child play observations and
parent surveys. The NICHD researchers summarized their findings in a written research report.
13
Subsequently, in response to public comments, CPSC Human Factors staff independently age-
graded more than 100 of the products from NICHD’s study. The Age Determination Guidelines
now reflect staff’s consideration of the NICHD age recommendations, staff’s independent age
determinations, public comments, and additional follow-up research. The Age Determination
Guidelines should be viewed as a working document that requires regular updates to ensure
continued accuracy and usefulness.
10
Original document Goodson, B.D. & Bronson, M.B. (1985). Guidelines for relating children's ages to toy
Characteristics (Contract No. CPSC-85-1089). Prepared for the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission,
Washington, DC.
11
Therrell, J. A., Brown, P. -S., Sutterby, J. A., & Thornton, C. D. (2002). Age determination guidelines: Relating
children’s ages to toy characteristics and play behavior (T. P. Smith, Ed.). Prepared for the U.S. Consumer Product
Safety Commission, Washington, DC.
12
CFR (now closed) was located within the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD), at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Health and Human Services
(DHHS), 9000 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20854.
13
Richards, M.N., Putnick, D.L., Suwalsky, J.T.D., & Bornstein, M.H. (2020) CPSC Toy Guidelines: Research
Document. Prepared for the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Washington, DC.
A User Guide to the Age Determination Guidelines
12
Organization of the Age Determination Guidelines
The (2020) Age Determination Guidelines: Relating Consumer Product Characteristics to the
Skills, Play Behaviors, and Interests of Children recognizes that children’s growth involves not
only physical and cognitive development, but also emotional and social development. Children’s
cognitive development, which includes creativity, discovery, language skills, verbal judgment
and reasoning, symbolic thought, problem-solving skills, and the ability to focus and control
behavior, are all heavily influenced by children’s play experiences. Children’s emotional
development, which is also shaped by their play, includes feelings of happiness, feelings of
control over their environment, emotional awareness, sensitivity to others, emotional strength
and stability, spontaneity, humor, and feelings about self. Social learning occurs largely during
children’s play interactions, as children learn to play in larger and larger groups, and as they
begin to learn about appropriate behaviors within certain contexts. Considering the physical,
cognitive, emotional, and social development of children permits adults to address the well-being
of the whole child, as adults design, manufacture, package, sell, or purchase play items, such as
toys. The primary content of the Age Determination Guidelines is organized into four levels,
each representing an increasing level of detail. These levels are play categories, product
subcategories, age groups, and product characteristics.
Play Categories
The play category level consists of eight main groups that serve as the primary structure of the
Age Determination Guidelines. The main groups apply to the various play behaviors in which
children engage and how they use products during play. The main play categories are: (1)
Exploratory and Practice Play, (2) Building Play, (3) Pretend & Role Play, (4) Game & Activity
Play, (5) Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play, (6) Media Play, (7) Educational & Academic
Play, and (8) Technology Play. These eight categories provide the largest organizational strategy
for the Age Determination Guidelines, and they essentially represent the “chapters” of the
document, as evidenced from the Contents. As discussed below, these are apportioned into
subcategories of products to permit more specific discussions of the various types of products
within each play category.
A User Guide to the Age Determination Guidelines
13
Technology Play, with two subcategories, is a new category in this latest revision of the Age
Determination Guidelines, reflecting that today, children are digital natives, with technology
present in their lives from infancy through adolescence. A 2017 survey by Common Sense
Media revealed that children from birth to 8 years continue to spend more than 2 hours each day
with television, DVDs, computers, video games, and mobile devices. Through these devices,
children are able to access games, music, programming, as well as fully use features of products
that are compatible with these devices. Many of the same factors from traditional products for
children (e.g., classic toys and games) relate similarly to age appropriateness of technology play;
although there are specific issues to consider that are addressed in that section. Because
technology is rapidly evolving, this section needs frequent updates as new technologies enter the
market.
Product Subcategories
Each play category is divided into two to five subcategories. These subcategories correspond to
general types or groups of products that children use when participating in that play type, and
represent the major sections of the Age Determination Guidelines, as is evident from the
Contents and the Product Subcategory Index. Table 3 lists the eight play categories, the 21
subcategories, and examples of products that are common within each subcategory.
14
Age Groups
The information presented in each product subcategory is distributed among the following age
groups:
• Birth Through 3 Months • 19 Through 23 Months • 6 Through 8 Years
• 4 Through 7 Months • 2 Years • 9 Through 12 Years
• 8 Through 11 Months • 3 Years
• 12 Through 18 Months • 4 Through 5 Years
14
Note that some products in certain subcategories are covered by standards other than the mandatory ASTM F963
toy standard.
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14
Table 3. Play Categories, Product Subcategories and Example Toys
These age groups are partly based on those in the original Age Determination Guidelines, and are
also modeled after developmental psychology, anatomy, and early childhood literature,
particularly from the work of researcher Jean Piaget. The age group names were selected to
avoid misinterpretation and the perception of overlap, which can sometimes occur when using
the word “to” in age ranges, as in “4 to 8 Months” and “8 to 12 Months.” Hence, “4 Through 7
Months” includes 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-month-olds. The first 4 years of childhood contain seven of
the 10 age groups, and the first year contains three of those groups. This is due to the rapid
Play Category
Product Subcategory
Examples
Exploratory & Practice Play
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
Push & Pull Toys
Rattles, squeeze toys
Toy with wheels and pull string
Building Play
Blocks
Interlocking Building Materials
Wood/foam/cardboard blocks
Brick-connecting blocks,
model kits
Pretend & Role Play
Dolls & Stuffed Toys
Play Scenes & Puppets
Dress-Up Materials
Small Vehicle Toys
Tools & Props
Dolls, stuffed animals,
action figures
Doll houses, pop-up tents
Costumes, jewelry
Cars, trucks, trains, planes
Cell phones, kitchen sets
Game & Activity Play
Puzzles
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games
Inset frame, jigsaw, 3-D
Wood, cardboard
Sports, Recreational, &
Outdoor Play
Ride-On Toys
Recreational Equipment
Sports Equipment
Tricycles, wagons, bicycles,
scooters, motorized cars, skates
Hoops, tents
Football, baseball, tennis, golf
Media Play
Arts & Crafts
Musical Instruments
Paints, paper, glitter, scissors
Keyboards, tambourines, drums
Educational & Academic Play
Books
Learning Products
Paper, hard, coloring, vinyl
Press & guess
Technology Play
Smart Toys & Educational Software
Audiovisual Equipment
Computer & Video Games
Computer-chip based or online
Mp3s, CDs, DVDs
Handheld/tablet, laptop, desktop
A User Guide to the Age Determination Guidelines
15
progression of motor, speech, and cognitive abilities during the first few years. According to
early childhood experts, development is most rapid between birth and 2 years of age; body
proportions change drastically, as does the ability to control the body. Because this period of life
includes dramatic variation in performance in a relatively short time, considerable space has been
dedicated to reviewing this period extensively and comprehensively.
As discussed below, product characteristics and play behaviors are described for each age group
first in narrative (text) form and then in chart form. Arrows within the charts indicate that the
feature in question is also characteristic of one or more older age groups.
Product Characteristics
Each product subcategory describes characteristics that are based on the skills, play behaviors,
and interests of children as they progress through the 10 age groups described earlier. Cognitive
abilities, motor skills, visual preferences, and social/emotional interests are among the topics
described for each age group.
In the introductory narrative for each subcategory, a bulleted list of primary product
characteristics appears. “Primary characteristics” are defined as those that should be given
primary emphasis or importance when performing age determinations for a given subcategory of
products because they are likely to have the greatest influence on age appropriateness. The order
in which these characteristics are presented does not necessarily indicate their importance or
priority because this will often change as children learn and develop. These primary
characteristics are identified in the charts using asterisks. Secondary characteristics are also
discussed within the text and charts for each subcategory. Secondary characteristics act in
concert with the primary characteristics to help explain how each age group relates differently to
the given subcategory.
In general, all 14 characteristics of products described in the Age Determination Guidelines have
the potential to be of interest to consumers who are planning to purchase products, and they
should be used to analyze features to aid in determining age appropriateness. However, this list
of product characteristics is flexible, and other characteristics should be considered when
A User Guide to the Age Determination Guidelines
16
necessary. These product characteristics include: size, shape, number of parts, interlocking
versus loose parts, materials, motor skills required, color/contrast, cause and effect, sensory
elements, level of realism/detail, licensed theme, classic, robotic/smart features, and educational.
These terms are used where appropriate within the age group discussions for each subcategory.
Their definitions are in Table 4, listed in the same order as they appear in the tables at the end of
each product subcategory.
Table 4. Definitions of Toy Characteristics
Characteristic(s)
Definition
Size of Parts
The dimensions of a toy or parts of toys. The size of a toy is related to the age of
children for which the toy is appropriate. Undeveloped fine motor skills, such as those of
younger children, encourage larger toys and parts, while more advanced skills and the
desire for challenge in older children encourages smaller and more complicated toys
and parts. In addition, ride-on and similar toys will be sized or scaled to the size of the
child.
Shape of Parts
The shape of a toy is related to the age of children for which the toy is appropriate.
Undeveloped fine motor skills, such as those of younger children, encourage rounded
toys and parts.
Number of Parts
The quantity of elements included within the toy as a whole. Differences in children’s
ages and developmental levels affect their reception of and interaction with toys that
have single or multiple parts.
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Whether a toy includes more than one piece, and how those pieces interact. This
characteristic largely pertains to building toys, such as blocks and model kits, which
include more than one piece that may (interlocking) or may not (loose parts) be
connected. Toys with loose versus interlocking parts have different levels of interest
among children of various ages, motor skills, and cognitive abilities.
Materials
The substances from which the toy or parts of the toy are constructed (e.g., wood,
plastic, vinyl, and foam). This also describes suitable characteristics of these materials
since some materials (e.g., metal) are more appropriate for older children than for
younger children.
Motor Skills Required
The specific levels of fine- and gross motor skills that are required on average for a child
to successfully interact with a toy. Fine motor skills pertain to the ability to control the
hands and fingers, including hand/eye coordination. Gross motor skills apply to the large
muscle coordination necessary for using a toy. The amount of fine- and gross motor skill
required by a toy can play a large role in determining the appropriate age range for a
toy.
Color/Contrast
The colors or contrasts used in the toy. The purpose of toy color is predominantly for
appeal and marketing. Although some research studies indicate that infants prefer reds
to blues and patterns to solids, no literature suggested that such preferences are
developmentally based among toddlers, preschoolers, or children in the late early
childhood years. Culture factor plays a large role in color appeal.
Cause & Effect
The attributes of toys that respond in some way to children’s actions, either through
lights, sounds, movement, or change in property. The cause and effect can range from
A User Guide to the Age Determination Guidelines
17
Characteristic(s)
Definition
very simple to highly complex and is directly related to the level of cognitive or motor
skills required from a child.
Sensory Elements
Those characteristics of toys that appeal to any of the five senses. These elements were
considered on the basis of lights, sounds, texture, smell, and taste. Stimulation of the
five senses provides different responses from children at different ages. Color/contrast is
identified as a separate characteristic of appeal, so it was not considered as a visual
sensory element.
Level of Realism/Detail
The visual design of toys and their anticipated use. Level of realism is described in two
ways: cartoonish versus real appearance and child versus adult qualities.
Cartoonish/Real details pertain to the visual presentation of a toy. Level of maturity,
cognitive ability, and motor skills are considered for the child/adult determination. The
combination of these realism perspectives (cartoonish vs. real and child vs. adult) works
together to affect the appeal and appropriateness of toys.
Licensed Theme
Toys with ties to outside influences—primarily media—contain a licensed theme.
Television shows, movies, books, and sports figures are the main sources of licensed
toys. Licensed character images try to connect the emotional feelings associated with
the media to the toy product. The appeal of the licensed product varies depending on
the age of the child and the child’s exposure to the media associated with the product.
Classic
Toys that maintain appeal with consumers over generations. Purchasing decisions made
by adults are affected by the classic status of particular toys.
Robotic/Smart Features
Toys powered by remote controls (attached or not) or computer chips. Robotic/smart
toys have the ability to respond in an interactive fashion with the user. Appropriateness
is evaluated in terms of ease of use, remote response, and the level of cognitive
sophistication required to use the toy as anticipated.
Educational
Toys designed and marketed specifically for academic gains. The appropriateness of
these toys depends on the level of cognitive ability necessary to engage in an expected
educational way, and the type of material, size, and number of parts.
A Product Subcategory Index appears immediately after the Contents. This index provides page
numbers for the 21 subcategories, listed alphabetically. The Product Index, included at the end of
the document, indicates the subcategory under which a specific product is classified and the page
on which the subcategory discussion begins. It is especially useful for products for which the
reader is unable to determine the appropriate subcategory, or for products that are likely to fall
into multiple subcategories.
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences is a good starting point for distinguishing differences
among age groups of children for assessing toy appropriateness. Readers will find it useful for
A User Guide to the Age Determination Guidelines
18
assessing products that are not specifically addressed in the updated Age Determination
Guidelines or that do not seem to fit neatly into a particular subcategory.
The primary characteristics within each subcategory are bullet listed in the text and are identified
with asterisks in the charts. These characteristics should be given primary emphasis when
performing age determinations for that subcategory of products, because they are likely to have
the greatest influence on age appropriateness. However, other characteristics discussed within
the text and tables should also be considered. In addition, the results of more recent or highly
focused scientific research on children’s abilities and preferences, especially for specific
products, may supersede what is stated in these Age Determination Guidelines. Although age
grading has implications for what safety requirements apply to a product, the Age Determination
Guidelines are designed to relate the characteristics of consumer products to the skills, play
behaviors, and interests of children across development.
19
CHILDREN’S BASIC ABILITIES AND PREFERENCES
This section serves as a handy reference guide and starting point for understanding and
distinguishing children’s basic abilities and preferences as they grow. These abilities and
preferences play an important role in attracting and motivating children to interact with products.
Developing physically, for example, changes the ways in which children are able to coordinate
their gross motor skills. Increased mobility opens up new ways to use products. A higher level of
fine motor skill permits greater manipulation of objects. Ultimately, such knowledge helps to
identify and distinguish the characteristics of products that are of interest to children at a given
age. Although information of this sort is noted throughout the Age Determination Guidelines in
relation to a specific subcategory of products, this section summarizes average play behaviors,
regardless of the product used; and it identifies appropriate product characteristics that are
generally consistent among all subcategories of products. With this information, it will be easier
for the reader to make an age determination for a given product, even if it is not specifically
addressed within the Age Determination Guidelines.
Birth Through 3 Months
Object play is limited during this period because learning occurs mostly through the reflexive
actions of the child, such as spontaneous kicking or arm movements. They are manipulating
objects so that they may explore them, repetitively. Initially, they explore with their eyes and
ears only. Newborns can focus best at about 8 inches from their faces, but this increases over
time, and they may be able to see objects several feet away by the end of this period. Play objects
should fit within their visual field at these distances. They are attracted to bright and vibrant
colors, especially yellows and reds, and to objects with high-contrast patterns, like black and
white spirals. These children prefer the human face to all other patterns, and will watch faces
intently. They will turn their heads in the direction of a sound, and are more attracted to objects
that emit a gentle, soothing sound and that move slowly, than to objects that remain still or are
too loud, too sudden, or otherwise extreme. Much of children’s play at this age involves
watching and exploring their own body. They have a reflexive grasp, which only allows them to
explore objects briefly; and at 3 months, they begin to swipe or reach toward a dangling object to
grasp it. Any object grasped is likely to be explored with their mouth and to be handled with
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
20
jerky, unpredictable motions. Therefore, soft, lightweight, washable, easy-to-grip objects with
rounded corners are best. The preference for soft-material toys is greatest for 3-month-olds and
declines as children reach their first birthday. They start to learn and enjoy toys for which simple
actions produce a clear, direct effect; for example, toys that light up, move, or create sound as a
result of simple kicking or shaking. Brightly colored and patterned toys that make gentle sounds
are both engaging and appropriate for these children.
4 Through 7 Months
Children now actively engage with their environments in systematic ways. Distance vision is
more mature, and these children can track moving objects with smooth, efficient eye movements.
Bright colors, high contrasts, and complex patterns continue to be of interest. These children
learn to differentiate among objects, as evidenced by their ability to group visual stimuli into
categories. By 5 months of age, children can roll onto their backs and push up onto their hands
and knees. They have mastered the ability to grasp and manipulate a dangling object by 6
months, and they begin to engage in more active play by reaching, grasping, tugging, pushing,
patting, shaking, and squeezing objects. At 6 to 7 months, children are sitting independently,
which provides them with greater visual capacities for grasping objects or bringing objects to
midline for exploration. They can manipulate objects more readily, although their fine motor
coordination is still rudimentary. Objects are grasped using a claw-like grip or raking motion,
rather than a pincer grasp (i.e., using the thumb and index finger). They can transfer an object
from hand to hand, and begin to use both hands independently; for example, one hand may hold
an object, while the other hand manipulates it. These children continue to mouth objects, so
suitable toys are washable.
Near the end of this period, children develop the ability to recognize oft-repeated words, and
some are beginning to crawl and stand with support. At this time, they are also beginning to
understand object permanence—that an object that is hidden or partially hidden did not actually
disappear, but still exists somewhere. Soft, lightweight, rounded, and textured toys that make
gentle sounds are appropriate. Handheld toys should be sized so these children can easily grasp
and manipulate them.
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
21
8 Through 11 Months
Much of the play during this period focuses on developing gross motor skills as these children
exhibit more outwardly oriented movements and become increasingly mobile. They can crawl
forward and backward, pull themselves into a standing position, walk with support (e.g., along
furniture), stand momentarily without support, and complete a couple of unassisted steps. They
also begin to climb. These children explore objects in many different ways, such as through
grasping, shaking, squeezing, throwing, dropping, passing from hand to hand, and banging.
Although they can hold two objects and bang them together, they cannot coordinate the
movements of both to use them together. However, when given one object, children in this age
span can use both of their hands at the same time, with each hand performing a different, but
complementary, action on the object. Usually, one hand is in a supporting or stabilizing role,
while the other manipulates or explores the object. They begin to develop a pincer grasp, which
is used to pick up small objects between the thumb and fingers. Patterns of exploratory play
begin that suggest children near the older end of this age group can make inferences about novel
objects. For example, these children may infer what functions may operate beneath the surface of
an object. They explore objects from every angle, and this often involves mouthing. Therefore,
suitable toys are washable.
Many children in this age group begin to use items in relational patterns; for example, they enjoy
dumping items out of a container, putting them back in, and then repeating the process. They
repeat pleasurable actions often, and start to show an interest in marking on paper. Basic memory
skills are developing, and object permanence becomes more entrenched. When a toy is hidden or
not within view, these children know the toy still exists and did not simply disappear. Children of
this age can understand simple words related to their immediate context, and need repetition and
reinforcement of the words they hear. At the end of this period, these children begin to imitate
gestures and the use of products. Sensory toys are highly attractive because these children are
beginning to understand simple cause-and-effect relationships. Bright colors, especially yellows
and reds, continue their appeal for this age group, as do high contrasts and complex patterns.
Pictures that represent familiar objects are also highly attractive. Suitable toys are soft, sturdy,
have rounded edges, and are easily grasped or manipulated by the child.
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
22
12 Through 18 Months
Increasingly, these children can walk without support. However, they are still unsteady on their
feet, and their walking resembles toddling more than mature heel-to-toe walking. Now they want
to explore everything; however, their curiosity far outweighs their judgment for predicting
outcomes or foreseeing dangers. They are trying out a variety of basic gross and fine motor
skills, and are gaining confidence as climbers. They can sing to themselves and will move their
bodies to music. Being more mobile, they can self-select toys that were once outside their reach.
They find basic grasping easier, and can manipulate toys that require simple twisting, turning,
sliding, and cranking. Through trial and error, they continue to explore cause-and-effect
relationships like dumping and filling activities and stacking and knocking over objects. Children
at this age display a preference for toys that have greater manipulability and sound potential.
They enjoy a variety of actions with objects, such as pressing, pushing, pulling, rolling,
pounding, beating, shaking, clanging, fitting (for example, inserting a round peg into a round
hole), marking, scribbling, carrying, and poking their fingers into objects. They delight in the
many effects their actions cause, and enjoy toys that take advantage of this. Children of this age
can recognize the names of familiar people, objects, pictures, and body parts. Long-term memory
and the development of simple vocabulary using one-word utterances now provide the
foundation for make-believe or pretend play. However, these children do not make clear
symbolic connections until about 18 months of age. These children often imitate common actions
they see—such as talking on the phone, “drinking” from a bottle or cup, stirring a spoon inside a
bowl, hugging a stuffed animal, or putting on a hat—but only in brief, sporadic episodes. By 1
year, on average, children are able to show appreciation of sociocultural uses of objects and
attend to cause-and-effect relations, which emerges between 13 and 20 months. For example, the
child may start to pretend to eat something from a plate. Between 13 and 20 months, they
develop greatly in their ability to engage in symbolic play. They can defer imitating something
for up to a week, and can also do so across a change in context (for example, from daycare to
home). Simple toys that encourage pretend play, such as dress-up materials, dolls, stuffed
animals, and small vehicle toys, are appropriate.
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
23
19 Through 23 Months
Children in this age group are more confident and stable at walking, and are exploring other
skills, such as balancing, jumping, and running. They can pull a toy behind them while walking,
climb onto and off of furniture without assistance, walk up and down stairs with assistance,
and—by the end of this period—may be able to kick a ball. They can now pick up and
manipulate much smaller objects due to their more developed pincer grasp. They like to sort
objects, often grouping them into two categories, and can now fit together simple objects.
Children in this age group can match angles, which allows them to fit a square peg into a square
hole. They can also start to use very simple coupling mechanisms like magnets, large hooks, and
hook-and-loop or touch fasteners. At 19 months, children can now engage in true building play.
Representational and symbolic thinking emerges during this timeframe, and children understand
that some toys represent other objects. The child’s depiction of representational art, however, is
still in its infancy and may seem nonrepresentational to adults. Most of their artistic forays take
the form of gestures, or a series of dots may represent, for example, a rabbit hopping. They can
use simple phrases, a few active verbs, and directional words, such as “up,” “down,” and “in.”
Social play also emerges because children of this age can now communicate with and play
alongside each other. These children can role-play a variety of commonly observed actions, such
as sleeping and making dolls or stuffed animals assume roles, such as play partners. When
playing pretend with children, parents are usually sensitive to the needs of their children,
suggesting play at the same or slightly higher level of complexity than their children would
normally play. Although they still use trial and error, these children can mentally consider
solutions to problems before taking any action. This means they can remember and work with
mental representations of familiar objects, pictures, letters, and numbers as they ponder
appropriate actions. They are more goal-oriented, and object permanence is more advanced.
These children can help dress or undress themselves. Toys with low-to-moderate cause-and-
effect features—such as those with push buttons or pull cords that cause actions or sounds—are
attractive to these children.
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
24
2 Years
Now that pretend play is established, 2-year-olds can perform social roles like mommy, daddy,
or baby. Role taking becomes a bigger part of social pretend play, and their pretend play
becomes more elaborate as they use a variety of objects to carry out longer episodes. At this age,
children need the object to resemble the real item to some degree, so they might use a cloth
rather than a shoe to represent a pillow. They understand that pictures can depict pretend
objects, and scribbles gradually become more representational pictures during this period,
although they are still more interested in the process than the product. They become increasingly
interested in color variations and using simple art materials. Children at this age begin to show
an interest in television and television characters. They are drawn to familiar cartoon characters
from television shows that they can incorporate into their play themes. They often want to know
“why,” and can start to use simple learning or educational toys. They understand the purpose of
numbers in counting objects.
Children have increasing control over basic gross and fine motor skills. Interest in gross motor
activity increases with newly found physical strength and basic coordination; and children this
age especially enjoy balancing, climbing, running, jumping, throwing, catching, and pushing or
pulling objects. They learn these skills separately during this period, and with each passing year,
they gradually combine them with other skills as coordinated movement. They can perform
somersaults, and like to dance, twirl, and gallop to music. Although their control is still
uncertain, they can kick and throw a ball. They can manage simple screwing actions, and can use
simple one- or two-turn wind-up mechanisms, provided they are of low tension. Smaller buttons
or snaps may be difficult for these children to manipulate, but they can use large hooks, buttons,
and buckles. They prefer more realistic toys, so colors other than bright primary colors (e.g.,
pastels) become attractive. However, these toys do not need to be elaborately detailed.
3 Years
These children like to use replica objects as actors in a story. A doll, for example, might be
prepared to attend a birthday party with her doll friends, and they will drive in a car, eat food,
and play chase, or dance at the party. Realistic props enhance pretend play at this age, but these
children also start to use objects that are unlike the real item, so they might use a shoe to
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
25
represent a pillow. They show greater interest in structured games. Television characters,
especially gentle, cartoonish characters are important at this age because children use these
characters as safe playmates.
These children progress considerably in their gross motor skills. They can tiptoe and balance on
one foot, hop, climb, and slide on play structures with ease, kick or catch a large ball thrown
from a short distance, and throw and aim at short distances. Children in this age group still spend
a substantial amount of their time in object-oriented play. They now have the fine motor skills to
take on the challenge of more complex building play, combining smaller pieces, and engaging in
a variety of art activities that require fine motor skill.
4 Through 5 Years
Drama and pretend play, also known as symbolic play, are at their zenith. These children like to
invent complex and dramatic make-believe scenarios. They can build upon each other’s play
themes, create and coordinate several roles in an elaborate scenario, and understand story lines
better. Many of these children still have difficulty understanding the differences between fantasy
and reality. For example, children of this age may believe that monsters are real. They enjoy
stepping into roles of power, like a parent, doctor, policeman, lion, or superhero, which helps
them to understand these roles better, to make the situations less scary, or to fulfill wishes and
express a broad range of emotions. Toys that are based on popular media platforms let children
share roles with other viewers of the same program to create a ready-made play script. As their
cognitive and fine motor skills improve, they begin to desire objects with more realistic detail;
yet, they still are not very concerned about mirroring reality.
These children further master gross and fine motor skills. They enjoy frequent trips outside to
run, climb, hop, skip, and chase. Their fine motor skills are much improved over 3-year-olds,
allowing them to engage with art materials requiring more precision. Interactive toys are still
attractive at this age, although the challenge of non-predictable and random responses from the
toy is more attractive and will consume the child’s time for longer.
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
26
6 Through 8 Years
These children continue their interest in physical play outdoors, seeking to master more
specialized physical skills. They are much stronger, have greater endurance, and are ready for
more challenges. Their play includes more rough-and-tumble or risk-taking behaviors. They
focus more on playing their games and activities by spontaneous or set rules, either of which can
be complex. Children in this age group engage in sports of all kinds and common outdoor games.
They often want to focus on and develop specific skills, and are adept at a variety of activities
requiring great dexterity, such as complex hand games, building, or crafts. They can make small,
controlled marks or movements while drawing or writing.
They pay much more attention to detail, which facilitates a desire for collecting. At this stage,
they start using logic more often to solve problems, organize, or choose from a variety of
alternatives. Their appreciation for simple jokes and riddles grows during this period. Licensed
characters based on action superhero themes or friendship themes are very popular early on with
this age group.
9 Through 12 Years
Children during this period continue to develop their skills at many of the sports, games, and
activities from their early elementary years; however, some games become predictable and
boring. Therefore, they are looking for a new range of activities to challenge their more
advanced motor skills and thinking. Instead of finished products, they often prefer raw materials
for creating their own unique products. These children enjoy a variety of activities at a more
complex, exacting level of performance, such as arts and crafts, theater, advanced science
projects, and generating computer graphics. They are beginning a stage where they seek to
clarify and express more complex concepts, moving from the concrete to the abstract and
applying general principles to the particular. Around age 9, they begin to shift their interests
away from cartoon characters to more real-life characters, like professional sports stars and real-
life television, music, and movie stars.
Children in this age group like to emulate popular teen characters, sports stars, and musicians, by
using licensed products in which they are featured. For some children, symbolic play may
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
27
continue into this age group; although children may prefer to engage in it in private settings so
that they are not embarrassed by appearing too immature.
Children’s Basic Abilities and Preferences
28
29
EXPLORATORY AND PRACTICE PLAY
Exploratory and Practice play toys, such as mirrors, mobiles, manipulatives, push toys, and pull
toys, help young children learn about themselves, objects, and the world around them. These toys
encourage young children to develop their fine and gross motor skills, as well as their basic
cognitive and language skills.
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives (p. 31)
• Activity gyms
• Bubbles
• Cloth and plush toys
• Gear spinning toys
• Inflatable toys
• Interlocking plastic rings
• Large beads on rings
• Lightweight balls
• Mirrors
• Mobiles
• Multisensory infant toys
• Multi-textured infant toys
• Nesting, sorting, and stacking toys
• Plastic discs on a ring
• Plastic keys on rings
• Play mats
• Pop-up toys
• Rattles
• Rocking toys
• Roly-poly toys
• Sand and water toys
• Squeeze and squeak toys
• Teething toys
Push & Pull Toys (p. 45)
• Pull toys with handles and cords
• Push and pull toys that resemble real life
objects
• Push toys with handles
• Push toys without cords or handles
Exploratory and Practice Play
30
Exploratory and Practice Play
31
MIRRORS, MOBILES, & MANIPULATIVES
Exploratory and practice mirrors, mobiles, and manipulatives are most useful for young children,
who are first learning about the characteristics of objects, the world, and the self. Children of all
ages are interested in mirrors, which develop self-awareness and identity. Children watch, feel,
grasp, manipulate, mouth, and otherwise explore these products. Through them, children learn
about their senses and how objects and actions affect them. For safety reasons, all these products
should be non-breakable and have rounded edges that cannot cut a child. Products that can be
grasped should be made safe for mouthing.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of mirrors, mobiles, and manipulatives:
• Color/Contrast
• Motor Skills Required
• Cause & Effect
• Size of Parts
The order of these characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can change
with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics of
these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
description of what types of mirrors, mobiles, and manipulatives are appropriate and how
children in that age group play with these products.
Birth Through 3 Months
At this age, children learn mostly through reflexes, such as spontaneous kicking and arm
movements. At birth, an infant’s focus is best at a distance of about 8 inches from the face. Until
about 1 month of age, children merely look, listen, suck, and make grasping movements. They
generally perform these actions, many of which seem random, independently of one another.
Research demonstrates that children can differentiate red from green, even at birth, and that by 2
months of age, all color receptors in the eye are functioning. By 3 months, children prefer yellow
and red to blue and green, and prefer patterns to solids. Now they can see objects several feet
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
32
away from their faces. They will also smile at their mirror images. At ages 1 through 3-months-
old, children begin adapting their reflexes to their environment, including their toys. Their
movements become more coordinated and organized; and at 3 months of age, they begin
reaching toward and grasping objects. When children can grasp toys, they learn to manipulate
them both manually and orally.
Suitable mirrors and manipulative toys for these children fit completely within their visual field,
have rounded edges, and are lightweight, but sturdy, if designed to be grasped. Children in this
age group prefer brightly colored toys dominated by yellows, reds, and high-contrast patterns;
and graspable toys should be washable because children in this age group will mouth them.
Cause-and-effect relationships should be simple. For example, a toy that makes sounds when
kicked or shaken would be suitable for children in this age group. Sensory elements should not
be too loud, too bright, too sudden, or otherwise extreme. Examples of manipulative toys for
children in the latter end of this age group include teething toys, rattles, lightweight balls (such as
rattle beads on elastic, musical, chiming, grasping, special effects, and textured balls), multi-
textured and multisensory infant toys, activity gyms, play mats, cloth toys, and plush toys.
Mirrors and activity gyms should attach securely to the crib or wall; or, they should be well-
balanced enough to remain standing on the floor as the child interacts with them. Mobiles should
be designed for hanging directly above the infant so the suspended elements are oriented toward
the infant—rather than at an angle so their profiles are directed toward the infant—and so each
element will fit within the infant’s visual field. Mobiles should remain outside an infant’s reach
because they are meant to be watched, not manipulated by the child. Mobiles that have sensory
elements other than movement, such as soft sounds or music, are especially attractive.
4 Through 7 Months
At this age, most children are externally oriented, actively engaging with their environments, and
repeating simple actions that involve objects like toys, clothing, and other people. Most children
now actively handle toys. They are learning to reach, grasp, push, pull, squeeze, pat, poke, and
shake. Mouthing and teething are also very characteristic of this age group, although the time
spent mouthing varies among children. They can sit unsupported around 6 months of age, so now
playing with water/tub toys is appropriate. Children in this age group are fascinated by faces in
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
33
general and are amused by their own face reflected in a mirror. By 6 months of age, they begin to
recognize their reflected image as their own. Since children of this age can sit up, they can use
small handheld mirrors. Children in the latter end of this age group also can hold and shake
easily graspable toys.
Suitable manipulative toys for children 4 through 7 months of age have characteristics similar to
those for younger children. Children can now manipulate objects themselves, so they prefer soft,
lightweight toys. Because children in this age group prefer to mouth toys, any toy they grasp will
most likely proceed toward their face. Toys with flaps, spinners, and rattling objects for
exploration (such as beads on elastic, or a small ball with internal beads) are of interest to
children in this age group. Examples of cognitive and motor manipulative toys for 4- through 7-
month-olds include teething toys, rattles, lightweight balls (such as musical, chiming, grasping,
special effects, and textured balls), multi-textured and multisensory infant toys, manipulative
panels, activity gyms, play mats, cloth toys, plush toys, squeeze and squeak toys, plastic discs on
a ring, and interlocking plastic rings. The youngest children in this age range may show an
interest in mobiles. However, starting at about 5 months of age, when children begin to push up
onto their hands and knees, or begin to sit up, mobiles, suspended crib gyms, and similar toys are
no longer appropriate because they can pose a strangulation hazard. Mirrors may be attached to a
crib or wall. Handheld mirrors should have soft edges and handles that fit into their hands. Other
toys for holding may have many graspable handles of appropriate size.
8 Through 11 Months
Children 8 through 11 months of age are increasingly mobile, and their behaviors become more
outwardly initiated and goal-oriented. Due to an increase in physical and cognitive development,
children of this age are beginning to understand simple cause-and-effect relationships. Some
children begin to crawl and stand with support by 8 months of age. Very short tunnels (2 feet or
less) with mirrors or viewing panels (top or side) that allow for eye contact with a caregiver may
facilitate crawling in some children. The motor skills of grasping and shaking, or patting,
combined with the cognitive skill of understanding cause and effect, make multisensory toys
highly attractive to this age group. Children in this age group may be introduced to stationary
wheeled toys that can be spun by a child’s hand to produce fast spinning movement, lights,
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
34
sounds, or music. Children of this age can hold two objects at once, but they are unable to
coordinate the different actions of each hand. Because their physical abilities are increasing, but
they lack the coordination to completely control their own actions, their potential for getting
injured increases. Children in this age group are beginning to show an interest in object
displacement, and they practice fine motor skills, such as grasping, pushing, pulling, squeezing,
patting, poking, and shaking. Mouthing and teething are still very characteristic of this age
group, although the time spent mouthing varies among children. When a toy is hidden or not
within view, children in this age group know the toy still exists and did not simply disappear.
Suitable manipulative and mirror toys for children 8 through 11 months old have characteristics
similar to those for younger children. Children of this age also enjoy toys with containers
because they like to put things into them and then dump out the contents. Exploratory toys with
large dials, levers, wood flaps that change color and click and clack, rattle beads on elastic, and
press buttons may be introduced. Examples of cognitive and motor manipulative toys for
children in this age group include mirrors, teething toys, lightweight balls (such as musical,
chiming, grasping, special effects, and textured balls), multi-textured and multisensory infant
toys, manipulative panels, activity gyms, cloth toys, plush toys, squeeze and squeak toys, nesting
toys, sorting toys, stacking toys, simple cause-and-effect toys, such as pop-up toys and roly-poly
toys, large beads on rings, and plastic keys on rings. Manipulative panels and simple
manipulative toys that are small and light enough for children to lift, hold, and carry are good
choices for this age group. Children in this age group enjoy large and low, wall-mounted mirrors,
which allow them to watch themselves sit, crawl, and begin to walk. However, these mirrors
must be sturdy enough to withstand banging. Handheld mirrors should be small, have soft edges,
and include an appropriately sized handle. Children of this age are actively engaged with simple
stacking and sorting. Appropriate cause-and-effect toys are easily activated with simple, direct
movements, with the effect immediately following the cause. When the effect is too long, the
child cannot connect it to the cause.
12 Through 18 Months
Children from 12 through 18 months of age are increasingly curious and love to explore; this is
made easier by children’s increasing walking skill. Because of this, children begin to self-select
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
35
toys, rather than play with only those items that are within their reach. Although they are
becoming more skilled at walking, they are still unsteady on their feet, and they often lose their
balance. They are engaged in activities that develop their physical strength. They are developing
greater fine motor coordination. They are capable of controlled grasping and releasing, pushing,
pulling, squeezing, patting, poking, and shaking, and can twist, turn, slide, and crank toys. Toys
that combine these options are especially attractive—such as a squeezable ball with beads
interlaced on elastic. A toy like this can be squeezed, shaken, or used for fine motor practice as
the child slowly moves the beads across the elastic. They are even more expansively exploring
the world through all their senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling.
Suitable manipulative and mirror toys for children 12 through 18 months old are of a size and
weight that is easy to grasp and carry, rounded, and lightweight, but sturdy. Toys that are
brightly colored with high contrast are attractive to children in this age group. Toys with simple
cause-and-effect relationships, like part of the toy popping up when a button is pressed, are
attractive, but sensory elements should not be too loud, too bright, too sudden, or otherwise
extreme. Toys are generally washable, soft, and lightweight, because children in this age group
can now manipulate objects themselves. They also are likely to taste any toy they grasp because
they prefer to mouth objects. Examples of manipulative toys for 12- through 18-month-olds
include light-to-medium-weight balls (such as musical, chiming, grasping, special effects, and
textured balls for easy grasping), stationary wheeled toys that can be spun by a child’s hand,
multi-textured and multisensory toys, mirrors, wooden flaps that engage the pincher grasp motor
skill and turn left and right, large connecting suction cups, manipulative panels, activity centers,
cloth toys, plush toys, squeeze and squeak toys, nesting toys, sorting toys, stacking toys, pop-up
toys, rocking toys, short or transparent tunnels (3.5 feet or less and/or viewing panels that allow
for eye contact with a caregiver; sometimes tunnels for this age group are attached to open ball
pits), and inflatable toys. Children have the fine motor skills needed to grab onto the beads in a
bead maze and guide them through a simple path. Cognitive skills in language development at
this age will permit the child to label the beads, if they are in the shape of familiar objects, such
as cars, dogs, and ducks. Full-length mirrors are suitable because children in this age group are
increasingly self-aware. Appropriate handheld mirrors are small, have soft edges, and have
handles that fit into the hand of children in this age group. Children in this age group can now
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
36
engage more actively with stacking and sorting. They thoroughly enjoy water and sand play and
are given many opportunities for exploration through sand, water, and related toys. Adults can
blow bubbles for children to watch and to pop. Some children may try to blow bubbles with a
simple wand, but they are likely to become frustrated if they cannot produce bubbles on their
own. No-spill containers may be introduced to prevent spillage of bubble solution if the child tips
the container over, due to still-developing fine motor skills and coordination.
19 Through 23 Months
Representational and symbolic thinking emerges between 19 and 23 months of age. This is also a
time of great physical activity as children gain new strengths and skills in their gross motor
development. They are becoming more confident and stable in walking, and are exploring other
physical skills, such as balancing, jumping, and running. They are becoming more skilled with
their fine motor movements. Social play emerges as children can communicate better with each
other and begin to play alongside each other.
Suitable manipulative and mirror toys for children 19 through 23 months old have characteristics
that are consistent with those for the previous age group. Soft, lightweight toys are preferred,
because children like to manipulate objects themselves, and prefer to lift, hold, and carry them.
Many children still prefer to mouth objects, and any toy they grasp will most likely be tasted.
Examples of manipulative and mirror toys for 19- through 23-month-olds include handheld,
wall-mounted, and fun-house mirrors, light-to-medium-weight balls (such as musical, chiming,
grasping, special effects, and textured balls), stationary wheeled toys that can be spun by a
child’s hand, multi-textured and multisensory toys, manipulative panels, gear toys, activity
centers, cloth toys, plush toys, squeeze and squeak toys, rocking toys, tunnels (similar features to
previous age group), and inflatable toys. Some gear toys are especially exciting to this age group,
if the gears have chunky handles and can be moved freely around a surface (for example, using
magnetic gears on a magnetic board). This allows children to use their budding fine motor skills
to grasp the gears and create a design of their choosing. Some children may use their cognitive
skills to sort the gears into different colors. Mirrors that are handheld should be small and have
soft edges with a handle that fits into the hand of children in this age group. Children 19 through
23 months old can stack, sort, and nest toys with more skill; so nesting, sorting, and stacking toys
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
37
are also appropriate for this age group. Children’s abilities to sort and recognize colors means
that they can now complete more complex peg-style shape sorters based on colors. Children in
younger age groups may haphazardly put the pieces on the pegs without respect to sorting or
color. Lacing and stringing toys are also appropriate for children in this age group, but they
should have large diameter string with stiff ends.
They thoroughly enjoy water and sand play and are often given many opportunities for
exploration through sand, water, and related toys, such as sand molds, digging, and pouring toys.
Children are starting to blow bubbles, but may find the activity frustrating and still need help
from an adult. Sources of frustration can include too frequent dipping of the wand into the
bubble container to make the solution too sudsy to produce bubbles, as well as the child’s
inability to blow into the wand softly enough to produce a bubble. No-spill containers may be
introduced to prevent spillage of bubble solution if the child tips the container over, due to still-
developing fine motor skills and coordination.
2 Years
Two-year-olds are very interested in representational and symbolic play. This is also a time of
great physical activity as children gain strength and practice gross motor skills. They can walk,
run, jump, and balance fairly well. They are becoming more skillful with their fine motor
movements, and manual dexterity is improving. Social play is seen commonly as children are
more able to communicate with each other and begin to interact with each other in buddy and
group play. For this and other reasons, children are beginning to grow beyond cognitive and
motor Exploratory and Practice toys. Instead, they are increasingly interested in encapsulated
spaces, including medium-length tunnels (6 feet or less), life-sized, role-play toys, such as baby
dolls (see Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys), and riding toys, such as life-sized
wheeled vehicles (see Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Ride-On Toys and Sports,
Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment).
Manipulative and mirror toys for 2-year-old children can have a high level of realism, and yet
still have the qualities described for the previous age group. Because toys can look more realistic
for children at this age, all colors can be used in toys for this age group. Examples of
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
38
manipulative and mirror toys for 2-year-olds include mirrors, lightweight balls (such as musical,
chiming, grasping, special effects, and textured balls), electronic stationary wheeled toys with
simple learning features that can be spun by a child’s hand, multi-textured and multisensory
manipulative toys, manipulative panels, activity centers, cloth toys, plush toys, squeeze and
squeak toys, nesting toys, sorting toys, stacking toys, inflatable toys, water toys, sand toys,
rocking toys, tunnels, and large lacing and stringing toys. Handheld toys with mirrors should be
small and have a handle that fits into the hand of children in this age group. Children 2 years of
age enjoy stacking, sorting, nesting, and more complicated activity centers and manipulative
panels with knobs and latches, peg boards, and pounding toys. They thoroughly enjoy play and
exploration with water and sand. Most children can blow bubbles independently, and enjoy
doing so; they are starting to use bubble wands and bubble pipes. No-spill containers are best to
prevent spillage of bubble solution if the child tips the container over, due to still-developing fine
motor skills and coordination.
3 Through 5 Years
After the age of 2, most children engage predominantly in symbolic play, which includes
dramatic and building play. There are still some exploratory play materials that will continue to
hold interest for this age group—most notably bubble guns with a trigger (both conventionally
shaped and those in the shape of an animal or other design). At any younger age, children do not
have the strength or gross motor skills to hold up the gun and press the trigger at the same time.
Other children lack the strength to press the trigger altogether. Other exploratory toys that older
children enjoy are foam clay, and moldable (wet texture) sand for squeezing between their hands
and using with molds and for early sculpting activities. Age 3 is the youngest appropriate age,
due to the lower incidence of mouthing and ingestion. Younger children are also tempted to stick
clay or sand onto inappropriate objects (clothes, shoes). Other toys, like wooden flaps attached
with a ribbon that will fold upon themselves and trickle and cascade downward if held correctly,
are beginning to be understood in this age group; at any younger age, children try to stack the
flaps on top of each other, as if they were blocks. Liquid clocks are interesting exploratory toys
for this age group; at any younger age, children do not know that flipping the clock over
produces an effect that they can watch for enjoyment purposes. Children also enjoy climbing
through long tunnels (9 feet or less) at this age, and may appreciate added features, such as
Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives
39
hanging streamers, fabric doors that swing open and closed, and familiar themes. At younger
ages, children may feel scared or intimidated to crawl through long tunnels.
For information on balls for older children, please see Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play:
Recreational Equipment and Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Sports Equipment. For
information on mirrors for older children, please see Pretend & Role Play: Dress-Up Materials.
40
EXPLORATORY AND PRACTICE PLAY: MIRRORS, MOBILES, & MANIPULATIVES
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts*
Fits in visual field
Small enough for infant to grasp, if expected
to be handled
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded corners/edges
Easy-to-grasp shape, if expected to be
handled
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Lightweight
Soft
Washable
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Reaching
Grasping
Mouthing
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Hand-eye coordination
Able to sit up unsupported around 6 mo.
Palmar grasping; raking grip
Can transfer objects from hand to hand
Increased mobility; scooting, crawling,
standing, cruising, and initial walking
-----------------------------------------------
Can grasp & shake
Practicing fine motor skills such as grasping,
pushing, pulling, squeezing, patting,
poking, & shaking
Emergence of pincer grasp
Color/Contrast*
Bright, vibrant colors
High contrast patterns
Facial patterns
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
Cannot fully understand cause & effect, but
can still enjoy it; prefers simple cause-
and-effect relationships
-----------------------------------------------
Beginning to understand cause-and-effect
relationship; simple, clear cause-and-
effect relationships are still best
Sensory Elements
Visual: objects that move slowly
Multi-textured
Gentle, soothing sounds & voices
Not too loud, sudden, or extreme
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Pictures of familiar objects
Bouncing, vibrating, & lighting up
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed Theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
41
Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very interesting
Enjoys music
Explores objects manually & orally
Learns through reflexes
Able to reach & grasp around 3 months
At birth, focus is best about 8 inches from
face; by end of this period can see
several feet away
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Increasing interest in surroundings
Actively handles toys
Mouthing & teething
Begins pushing onto hands & knees and
sitting up around 5 mo.
Begins to understand object permanence
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Can hold 2 objects at once but cannot
coordinate between them
Object permanence is more established
Interest in object displacement
Examples of Products
Mirrors securely attached to a wall or crib
Mobiles, particularly those with music &
movement
Teething toys
Rattles
Lightweight balls (musical, chiming, grasping,
special effects, & textured)
Multi-textured infant toys
Multisensory infant toys
Activity gyms
Play mats
Cloth & plush toys
Toys that make sounds when kicked
-----------------------------------------------
Mobiles (prior to 5 mo.)
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Handheld mirrors (starting around 6 mo.)
Squeeze & squeak toys
Plastic discs on a ring
Interlocking plastic rings
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Sorting & stacking toys
Pop-up toys
Roly-poly toys
Large beads on rings
Plastic keys on rings
Very short tunnels (2 feet or less and/or with
viewing panels)
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
42
EXPLORATORY AND PRACTICE PLAY: MIRRORS, MOBILES, & MANIPULATIVES
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
3-5 Years
Size of Parts*
Small enough to grasp, carry, &
manipulate, if expected to
be handled
-----------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded
Easy-to-grasp shape, if expected
to be handled
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Lightweight (cont’d)
Soft (cont’d)
Washable (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Increasingly skilled at walking
Working on fine motor
movements like controlled
grasping & releasing,
pushing, pulling, flapping,
squeezing, patting, poking,
& shaking, twisting, turning,
sliding, & cranking
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
New gains in gross motor
strength & skills
More confident & stable walking
Exploration of other physical
skills such as balancing,
jumping, & running
More skilled at fine motor
movement
---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
Gains in gross motor strength &
skill
Walk, run, jump, & balance fairly
well
Fine motor movements & manual
dexterity is improving
Can move fingers independently
of each other
Moderate degree of fine motor
dexterity & control
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Color/Contrast*
Bright, vibrant colors (cont’d)
High contrast patterns (cont’d)
Facial patterns (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
All colors, including pastels, but
dull colors are less
attractive
Rich, vibrant colors
Pale or pastel colors
Cause & Effect*
A clear cause-and-effect
relationship (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
Moderately complex cause-and-
effect functionality (pushing
produces sound, lights)
Sensory Elements
Visual: lights, actions
Manual
Sounds
Not too loud, sudden, or extreme
(cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
43
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very
attractive
Like to explore objects manually
& orally (cont’d)
Increasingly curious & loves to
explore
Beginning to self-select toys
Uses all senses to explore the
world: seeing, hearing,
touching, tasting, & smelling
Short tunnels (3.5 feet or less
and/or viewing panels)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Can self-select toys
-----------------------------------------
Social play alongside each other
(parallel play)
-----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
Social play (buddy & group)
Beginning to grow beyond
Exploratory and Practice
toys
Increasingly interested in
encapsulated spaces such
as longer tunnels, role-
playing, & riding toys
Moderate problem-solving
abilities
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Examples of Products
Mirrors that securely attach to a
wall (cont’d)
Appropriately sized handheld
mirrors (cont’d)
Lightweight balls (musical,
chiming, grasping, special
effects, & textured) (cont’d)
Multi-textured toys (cont’d)
Multisensory toys (cont’d)
Manipulative panels (cont’d)
Activity centers (cont’d)
Cloth & plush toys (cont’d)
Squeeze & squeak toys (cont’d)
Sorting, & stacking toys (cont’d)
Pop-up toys (cont’d)
Bead Mazes
Inflatable toys
Sand & water toys
Rocking toys
Bubbles (no spill, may need to be
blown by an adult)
All examples from the previous
age group
Lacing & stringing toys
Nesting toys
Gear toys
All examples from the previous
age group
Bubble guns (both conventially
shaped and those in the
shape of an animal)
Foam clay
Wooden flaps attached with a
ribbon that will fold upon
themselves and trickle
downwards if held correctly
Liquid clocks
(For information on mirrors for
older children, please see
Pretend & Role Play: Dress-
Up Materials)
(For more on balls for older
children, please see Sports,
Recreational, & Outdoor
Play: Recreational
Equipment)
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
44
Exploratory and Practice Play
45
PUSH & PULL TOYS
Push and pull toys are important for motivating children to crawl or walk. They are often
operated with a string or a handle, and almost always travel on wheels of some kind. Most
children younger than 6 months cannot sit unsupported, and most are unable to move around
until about 7 months of age. Therefore, push and pull toys are generally inappropriate for most
children younger than 6 or 7 months. Since toys in this subcategory are most appropriate for the
child who is crawling or just beginning to walk, representational push and pull toys are not
discussed here. For those types of toys, please see Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys or
Pretend & Role Play: Tools & Props.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of push and pull toys:
• Motor Skills Required
• Color/Contrast
• Level of Realism/Detail
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of push and pull toys are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with
these toys.
4 Through 7 Months
At this age, most children are externally oriented, actively engaging with their environments, and
repeating simple actions that involve objects, including toys, clothing, and other people. Most
children now actively handle toys. They are learning to reach, grasp, push, pull, squeeze, pat,
poke, and shake. They can sit unsupported around 6 months of age, and some children begin to
crawl and stand with support by 8 months of age.
Exploratory and Practice Play: Push & Pull Toys
46
Suitable push toys for 6- and 7-month-olds have rounded edges, are sturdy, and roll steadily and
easily along the ground. Children of this age are most interested in push toys that are brightly
colored with high contrast, and these toys should be washable. Appropriate cause-and-effect
relationships are simple; for example, a toy may make a noise when the infant pulls it. Sensory
elements are not too loud, too bright, too sudden, or otherwise extreme. Realistic detail is not
preferred at this age, and children in this age group generally lack the fine motor skills to operate
toys that use handles and strings.
8 Through 11 Months
As these children become more mobile, their behaviors become more goal-oriented and objects
in their environment attract them. Because of their increase in physical and cognitive
development, children around this age are beginning to understand simple cause-and-effect
relationships. The motor skill of grasping and shaking, combined with the cognitive skill of
understanding cause and effect make multisensory toys highly engaging for this age group. They
are practicing fine motor skills, such as grasping, pushing, pulling, squeezing, patting, poking,
and shaking. Most children within this age group can sit unsupported or crawl while playing with
push and pull toys.
Push and pull toys for children 8 through 11 months old generally have characteristics similar to
those for younger children. Cause-and-effect toys should activate by simple, direct movements
by the child, and the effect should immediately follow the cause. When the effect is too long, the
child is unable to connect the cause and the effect. Realistic detail is not preferred at this age.
Handles and strings are still not appropriate for this age group because, although they may have
the ability to grasp them, they do not have the coordination to manipulate toys with them.
12 Through 18 Months
Children from 12 through 18 months of age are increasingly curious and love to explore, and
their increasing walking skill facilitates such traits. Because of this, children begin to self-select
toys rather than play with only those items that are within their reach. Although they are
Exploratory and Practice Play: Push & Pull Toys
47
becoming more skilled at walking, they are still unsteady on their feet and often lose their
balance. They are often engaged in activities that develop their strength.
In general, push and pull toys for children 12 through 18 months old have characteristics similar
to those for younger children. However, children in this age group are also now able to use push
toys with high upright handles or rigid rods with large attached handles, especially because they
can be used to help stabilize unsteady walkers. Some children at this age may even have
advanced enough gross motor skills to walk or run quickly with walkers. They are not yet able to
use pull toys with cords if the child must stand to use them, because cords do not provide
support. Toys of that kind require more advanced walking and better body skills. In addition,
they require the child to look over his or her shoulder while walking to fully enjoy them. Small
pull toys with short cords that the child can use while remaining seated are suitable though.
19 Through 23 Months
Representational and symbolic thinking emerges between 19 and 23 months. This is also a time
of great physical activity as children gain new strengths and skills in their gross motor
development. They are becoming more confident and stable in walking and are exploring other
physical skills, such as balancing, jumping, and running. In addition, social play is starting to
emerge during this period, as children are more able to communicate with each other and begin
to play alongside each other.
Push and pull toys for children 19 through 23 months old can have some realistic detail, and may
include rigid handles or cords for pushing or pulling. Their advancing walking skills let them use
pull toys with cords. Pull toys that weigh enough to slightly resist a child’s pull will help prevent
the toy from tipping over during use, as will pull toys with broad bases and low centers of
gravity.
2 Years
Two-year-olds are very interested in representational and symbolic play. This is also a time of
great physical activity as children gain strength and practice gross motor skills. They can walk,
run, jump, and balance fairly well. Social play is seen commonly as children are better able to
Exploratory and Practice Play: Push & Pull Toys
48
communicate with each other and begin to interact with each other in buddy and group play.
They are increasingly interested in riding toys, such as wheeled vehicles (see Sports,
Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment).
Push and pull toys for 2-year-old children can include realistic details, which means that they can
include all colors. These toys are rounded, sturdy, and washable. Suitable cause-and-effect
relationships are simple (for example, balls pop when toy is rolled), and sensory elements are not
too loud, too bright, too sudden, or otherwise extreme. Toys should be heavy enough so that they
are not lifted completely off the ground as children pull them. Those with broad bases and low
centers of gravity are more stable and suitable for children in this age group. As children get
older and engage in pretend play, push and pull toys can be made to resemble non-toy objects,
such as cars, wheelbarrows, and vacuum cleaners. Wheelbarrows require children to be
completely stable in standing and walking, because they need to be simultaneously lifted,
balanced, pushed, and steered. For more on push and pull toys for pretend play, see Pretend &
Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys. For more on wheeled vehicles, see Sports, Recreational, &
Outdoor Play: Ride-On Toys.
Exploratory and Practice Play: Push & Pull Toys
49
50
EXPLORATORY AND PRACTICE PLAY: PUSH & PULL TOYS
Product Characteristics
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts
Easy to grasp & push (5-7 inches)
-----------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded corners/edges
-----------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
One
-----------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Soft
Washable
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Reaching
Grasping
Hand-eye coordination
Able to sit up unsupported around 6 mo.
Increased mobility; scooting, crawling, cruising, & walking
Can grasp & shake
Practicing fine motor skills such as grasping, pushing, pulling,
squeezing, patting, poking, & shaking
Color/Contrast*
Bright, vibrant colors
High contrast patterns
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
A simple, clear cause-and-effect relationship
-----------------------------------------------------
Beginning to understand cause-and-effect relationship
Sensory Elements
Visual
Manual
Auditory: gentle, soothing sounds
Not too loud, sudden, or extreme
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail*
Realistic detail not preferred or necessary
-----------------------------------------------------
51
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very attractive
Enjoy music & sound effects
Like to explore objects manually & orally
Reflexes more outwardly oriented
Actively handles toys
Mouthing & teething
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Can hold 2 objects at once but cannot coordinate between
them
Examples of Products
Small, rounded push toys (starting around 6 months)
Simple cars or animals on wheels/rollers (starting around 6
months)
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
52
EXPLORATORY AND PRACTICE PLAY: PUSH & PULL TOYS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Rounded corners/edges (cont’d)
Broad base
Low center of gravity
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Few
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Soft (cont’d)
Washable (cont’d)
Heavy & steady enough to resist tipping
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Increasingly skilled at walking
Working on fine motor coordination,
including controlled grasping &
releasing, pushing, pulling,
squeezing, patting, poking, &
shaking, twisting, turning, sliding, &
cranking
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
New gains in gross motor strength &
skills
More confident & stable walking
Exploration of other physical skills such
as balancing, jumping, & running
More skilled at fine motor movement
Can pull toys behind
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Gains in gross motor strength & skill
Walk, run, jump, & balance fairly well
Fine motor movements & manual
dexterity is improving
Can move fingers independently of
each other
Color/Contrast*
Bright, vibrant colors (cont’d)
High contrast patterns (cont’d)
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
All colors, including pastels, but dull
colors are less attractive
Cause & Effect
A clear cause-and-effect relationship
(cont’d)
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
53
Sensory Elements
Visual (cont’d)
Manual (cont’d)
Auditory: gentle, soothing sounds
(cont’d)
Not too loud, sudden, or extreme
(cont’d)
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail*
May be recognizable, but realistic detail
not necessary
Somewhat realistic, but simple & not
detailed
Clearly represents object envisioned to
represent, but no elaborate details
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very
attractive
Likes to explore objects manually &
orally (cont’d)
Increasingly curious & love to explore
Beginning to self-select toys
Uses all senses to explore the world:
seeing, hearing, touching, tasting,
& smelling
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Self-select toys
--------------------------------------------------
Social play alongside each other
(parallel play)
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Social play (buddy & group)
Increasingly interested in riding toys
Examples of Products
Push toys with handles
Pull toys
Pull toys with short cords (used while
seated)
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Pull toys with cords
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Push & pull toys that resemble real life
objects (see Pretend & Role Play:
Small Vehicle Toys or Sports,
Recreational, & Outdoor Play:
Ride-On Toys)
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
54
55
BUILDING PLAY
Around 19 months of age, children demonstrate their symbolic understanding of the world
through their play, a construct known as representational play. Building play is the use of blocks
or other building materials to represent real-world objects, such as castles, bridges, or towers.
Although children can grasp blocks during infancy, they begin the early stages of building play
at about 19 months, on average. With each passing year, their structures increase in complexity.
Around the age of 6 years, interest in building play shifts from blocks to more complex
interlocking materials.
Blocks (p. 57)
• Foam cube blocks
• Hollow blocks
• Letter & number blocks
• Magnetic blocks
• Motorized bumble, bounce, and
vibrating blocks
• Nesting blocks
• Pillow blocks
• Plastic blocks
• Plastic-coated soft cube blocks
• Problem solving blocks
• Rattle/jingle blocks
• Stacking blocks
• Table blocks
• Talking blocks
• Wooden kindergarten blocks
Interlocking Building Materials (p. 71)
• Brick connecting pieces
• Foam puzzle mats
• Gear blocks
• Holes/slats/casing connecting sets
• Model kits
• Nuts & bolts
• Robotic blocks
• Rod and Spool blocks
• Snap-lock beads
• Suction cup blocks
• Wooden log connecting sets
Building Play
56
Building Play
57
BLOCKS
Building play contributes to learning and development, and increases the competence of the
child. Building play can be characterized by the lack of a single organizational format; the
materials largely determine the organization of the play. Simply defined, “building play”
involves using materials, such as blocks, to build something. True building play generally begins
in early childhood around 19 months of age and continues into adulthood. Younger children
advance from simply handling objects and materials, to actively using them for constructing or
building with a preconceived plan in mind. They begin to manipulate objects with the intention
of creating something, such as towers or houses. Until the age of 19 months, blocks are used
primarily as grasping objects in the environment. Most block sets are appropriate for children 19
months and older, with the materials differing most notably in size and weight. Note that larger
sets than are developmentally appropriate may be introduced to children where only a portion of
the pieces are presented to the child.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of blocks:
• Motor Skills Required
• Number of Parts
• Size of Parts
• Materials
• Cause & Effect
• Sensory Elements
• Shape of Parts
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of blocks are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with these toys.
Building Play: Blocks
58
Birth Through 3 Months
At this age, child play is limited to exercising reflexes. During this phase of infancy, children
reflexively open their mouths when their cheeks are brushed, so appropriate blocks are too large
to fit into their mouths. Before 3 months, most children do not have the physical abilities to grasp
or manipulate objects. During the first months of life, children use visual observation to engage
in play. Research studies find that children can differentiate red from green, even at birth, and
that by 2 months of age, all color receptors are functioning. By 3 months, children prefer yellow
and red over blue and green and highly contrasting patterns over solids. Therefore, bright yellow
and red blocks, and those with high visual contrasts and patterns, are more attractive to children
in this age group. Blocks made of soft/plush materials (like skinned foam or pillow blocks to
prevent liberation of small parts during play) or covered in plastic or cloth are appropriate for
these children. Blocks with rounded edges may avoid potential eye injury.
4 Through 7 Months
At this age, movements are progressing from involuntary reflexes to outwardly oriented
movements. As the child matures, grasping, reaching, shaking, and pulling become ways to
interact with the environment. Grasping is mastered around 6 months, so children can now
handle toy blocks. Grasping a block triggers the sucking reflex, so children in this age group will
immediately put blocks they can grasp into their mouths. Therefore, blocks should be designed to
avoid the possibility of choking. Motor skills are crude at this age; thus, blocks must be designed
so children can easily grasp them (e.g., by making them less than 4 inches across). Blocks that
are soft or plush are safer for the eyes and faces of children in this age group when they make
erratic arm motions. Visually, this age group’s abilities are consistent with younger children,
preferring red and yellow and patterns. Because 4- through 7-month-old children use blocks in
exploratory play rather than true building play, blocks that are appropriate for this age group
include those that are made from soft/plush materials like hollow plastic, vinyl, or foam. Larger
blocks (more than 3 inches across) with rounded edges are appropriate for children in this age
group, as are blocks that are patterned or colored red or yellow.
Building Play: Blocks
59
8 Through 11 Months
From 8 through 11 months, children’s behaviors become more outwardly oriented and their
hand-eye coordination is becoming more refined. In addition, this age brings the cognitive ability
to understand simple cause-and-effect relationships. This, together with the motor skill of
shaking, make sensory blocks highly attractive for this age group. Soft blocks with jingle bells or
rattles inside, or blocks that squeak when squeezed, are attractive and cognitively stimulating.
Additionally, children at this age enjoy battery-operated blocks that bounce, vibrate, or light up
when handled. Developing fine motor skills make squeezing a highly engaging activity. Blocks
that can be squeezed (e.g., those made from hollow plastic or foam) aid in this development, and
those between 3 and 5 inches permit easy grasping and carrying. Blocks are not yet used as
building play materials, so providing them as manipulatives to aid in the child’s development is
appropriate (see Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives). Children
need only a few blocks rather than a wide assortment.
As children’s dexterity increases, their potential for injury increases. Children of this age can
hold two objects at once, meaning twice as many things are available to choke on or to be hit
with as they bang the two things together. Appropriate soft/plush blocks are larger than 3 inches
across, have rounded edges, are easily grasped, are colorful, and are multisensory. Children in
this age group are particularly attracted to blocks that incorporate sounds. Cube-shaped blocks
are easy for them to grasp and bang together. Blocks that include pictures of familiar objects in
the environment are also attractive. Generally, wooden blocks are considered too heavy for
children in this age group. However, lightweight wooden or plastic blocks are suitable for the
child’s banging efforts.
12 Through 18 Months
Children’s emerging interests in novelty and exploration characterize the 12- through 18-month
period. Their curious nature is enhanced by the new ability to walk, which makes many more
items available for their reach. However, walking is still unsure and wobbly, and children in this
age group may fall as often as they step, particularly early on. Blocks with rounded edges make
falls onto them safer. Blocks that are made from soft foam, plush cloth, sponge, or rubber-like
materials also work well for meeting this need. These lightweight blocks will be used for
Building Play: Blocks
60
stacking and lining up. However, children in this age group find knocking down is just as
important as building. Once a stack of blocks is built, they want to knock it down right away
with their hands or feet. Therefore, appropriate blocks are those that are not hazardous to
children as they are knocked down. Large, heavy wooden unit blocks—also known as
kindergarten blocks—are not appropriate because of their weight, size, and hard corners.
Grasping is a much easier task during this phase of life, so smaller blocks (2 to 4 inches) may be
appropriate.
Children in this age group are becoming capable of making combinations of two to three objects,
which makes nesting blocks engaging. Children have the physical motor and coordination skills
necessary to manipulate the nesting task and have the emerging cognitive abilities to understand
that the blocks go together in a predetermined way. Although children at this age will not make
predetermined structures with magnetic blocks, they find it exciting to click and unclick blocks if
they have internal magnets. The exploration interest of children can be incorporated into their
blocks, as well. Blocks that have “curiosities” built into them provide children with an
exploration toy. For instance, hollow blocks that resemble a cage and have something inside that
can be “freed” would be attractive to children in this age group. In this age span, they are starting
to solve problems through an active process of trial and error; so blocks that encourage such
behavior are appropriate. Simple lightweight wooden or plastic blocks that were appropriate for
the 8- through 11-month child are also appropriate for the 12- through 18-month child. Children
in this age group can begin to line up lightweight blocks or stack them, or they may attempt to
stack or line up blocks in an orderly way. Based on child observations, little to no mastery of fine
or gross motor skills was required for stacking or lining up blocks in the set, making it
appropriate for children in this age group. Nesting and curiosity blocks are also engaging. A
greater number of blocks (15 to 25) is appropriate, but a large number is still unnecessary.
19 Through 23 Months
The cognitive ability for representational or symbolic thinking emerges during the 19- through
23-month time frame. Consequently, children may now start using blocks for true building play,
or to stack them onto chunky dowels. Children in this age group are now capable of putting
representational thought and imagination into action, so they may use a stack of blocks to
Building Play: Blocks
61
represent a tower. Because their interest in building is starting to grow, sturdier blocks are
appropriate. Cardboard blocks and thick foam blocks are both lightweight and easy to stack, so
children in this age group can easily build with them. Other attributes that are attractive in their
play are shape (rectangular or square) and size (about 2 to 4 inches). Blocks that are too
cumbersome or too heavy are of little interest because they are more difficult to manipulate.
Children in this age group find knocking down just as important as building. Once a tower of
blocks is built, they want to knock it down right away with their hands or feet. Therefore,
appropriate blocks are those that are not hazardous to children as they are knocked down, unlike
heavy wooden unit blocks or kindergarten blocks. Lightweight wooden or plastic table blocks,
however, are appropriate. Working with table blocks uses fine motor coordination skills as they
work to stack them into towers. Sets of blocks that include 20 to 40 pieces are sufficient for the
building in which children in this age group engage.
2 Years
Building play for 2-year-olds is very much the same as building play for 19- through 23-month-
olds. They use their building for symbolic representation, and they enjoy knocking down blocks
as much as building with them. Therefore, appropriate blocks for 2-year-old children are the
same as those for 19- through 23-month-old children: lightweight wood, cardboard, or foam
material, square or rectangular shape, and about 2 to 4 inches across. Sets of 20 to 40 blocks are
appropriate for this age group.
3 Years
Block constructions become more advanced by the time children are 3 years old. To reproduce
something they have seen, they analyze the component parts and visualize each in relationship to
the others. Statements like, “No. That doesn’t go there. It goes over here,” are often heard from
children in this age group as they build. They work through problems of relative size, volume,
space, and weight. Children in this age group are ready to advance from cardboard to wooden
blocks of different sizes and shapes so that they can build things more complex than towers.
Wooden unit blocks or kindergarten blocks are now appropriate. The basic unit is usually 3
inches by 3 inches by 1 inch, and the dimensions of other blocks in a set are multiples or
Building Play: Blocks
62
fractions of that basic unit. A complete set often includes unit, double-unit, and quadruple-unit
blocks, as well as wedges, triangles, cylinders, half rounds, and others. However, triangles and
half-round arches are not highly used at this age. The blocks can be hard- or soft wood, with
hardwood being heavier, more durable, and more expensive. Blocks like these are attractive
because they are simple geometric forms without complicated structures. This gives children in
this age group the opportunity to build garages, airports, houses, barns, rockets, and other
objects. An increased number of blocks over previous age groups (60 to 80) is also appropriate.
4 Through 5 Years
During this preschool period, block play is a dominant play activity. Complex structures that
began to be enjoyed at 3 years of age with wooden unit blocks are now more accurate and
intricate. Dramatic story lines are brought into building play as children add loose parts to their
creation. For example, cars are added when making garages, animals are brought in when
making farms, and dolls and furniture are used in the structure of a house. Loose parts combined
with wooden blocks are attractive because they open the door for richer, more complex play.
Suitable blocks for these preschool children tend to be made of wood and come in various sizes,
lengths, shapes, and specialized forms, other than just squares or rectangles. Children in this age
group can also handle a relatively large number of parts (80 to 100). Larger sets may be
introduced to these children, where only a portion of the pieces are used.
6 Through 8 Years
Early elementary age children generally find block building and building play highly attractive.
On average, elementary classrooms contain blocks for the children to use. Blocks provide
children in this age group with experiences that combine visual and motor skills with the ability
to plan ahead and execute their ideas through a series of steps. Fine motor skills, hand-eye
coordination, and arm movement control are becoming more refined, so more elaborate and
intricate constructions are seen. Because of the developmental level of children in this age group,
attractive and appropriate blocks are generally wooden, contain both large and small pieces,
include a variety of shapes besides just squares or rectangles, include a variety of lengths, and
contain many pieces. Children in this age group can handle sets with 80 to 100 pieces. Attributes
Building Play: Blocks
63
like these provide children in this age group with the materials needed to build at the level of
representation for which they are striving.
9 Through 12 Years
By 9 years of age, block building is a fairly uncommon activity. However, children who choose
to spend time interacting with blocks, enjoy blocks that have characteristics similar to those for
the previous age group, because these characteristics allow intricate structures to be built. Having
many parts (100 or more) is also important to keep the appeal level high. Generally, though, this
age group’s appeal for building play lies with sets that have interlocking pieces, as discussed in
the next subcategory, Interlocking Building Materials.
64
BUILDING PLAY: BLOCKS
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts*
Easy to grasp & explore
Too big to fit in mouth
-------------------------------------------------
3-4 inches
-------------------------------------------------
3-5 inches
Shape of Parts
Rounded edges
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts*
A few blocks (about 6) are sufficient;
child does not need a large array
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Loose parts; child not capable of
manipulating interlocking blocks
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Materials
Soft, plush cloth, sponge, or rubber-like
materials
Squeezable
Lightweight
Not wood; too sharp
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Grasping
Squeezing
Shaking
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Bright colors, especially yellow & red
High visual contrasts & patterns
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Pictures of familiar objects on blocks
Cause & Effect*
Enjoys blocks that make noise if shaken
or squeezed
-------------------------------------------------
Likes blocks that demonstrate cause-
and-effect relationships
Sensory Elements*
Especially enjoy sounds such as jingles,
rattles, & squeaks
65
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Exercises involuntary reflexes
Blocks used for exploration, not building
Begins grasping by about 3 months
Performs deliberate, outwardly oriented
movements
-------------------------------------------------
Grasping is mastered around 6 months
Handles & mouths blocks
Crude motor skills; erratic arm motions
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Capable of holding 2 objects at once
Squeezing & banging often occur
More coordinated
Understands simple cause-and-effect
relationships
Examples of Products
Small sets of plastic-coated soft cubes,
foam cube blocks, & pillow blocks
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motorized bumble, bounce, & vibrate
blocks
Rattle/Jingle blocks & plastic air squeak
blocks
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
66
BUILDING PLAY: BLOCKS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
2-4 inches
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded edges
-------------------------------------------------
Rectangular & square blocks
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts*
15-25 pieces
A large array of blocks is not needed
20-40 pieces
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Loose parts; child can stick together
blocks with internal magnets
Can start using interlocking sets with
simple connecting systems (see
Building Play: Interlocking Building
Materials)
Materials*
Soft, plush cloth, sponge, or rubber-like
materials
Lightweight wood or plastic
Not heavy wood to ensure safety when
knocked over
Sturdier materials for building towers,
like cardboard or thick foam blocks
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Grasping
Minor fine motor coordination for
manipulating blocks
-------------------------------------------------
Fine motor skills for stacking blocks
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
67
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Emerging interests in novelty &
exploration
Ability to walk
Decreased frequency of mouthing toys
Solves problems via trial & error
Curious nature
Knocking down block structures is a
popular activity
Representational & symbolic thinking
True building play becomes a way of
using blocks.
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Examples of Products
Talking blocks
Problem-solving blocks
Nesting blocks
Stacking Blocks
Table Blocks
-------------------------------------------------
Lightweight blocks for stacking onto
chunky dowels
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
68
BUILDING PLAY: BLOCKS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Basic unit block = 3 ½ inches
square x 1 ½ inches
thick
Other blocks in set tend to be
multiples or fractions of
basic unit
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Variety in size & length of
blocks
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Shape of Parts*
Unit, double & quadruple unit
Wedges, triangles, cylinders,
half-rounds
Simple geometric forms
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
More specialized forms
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Number of Parts*
60-80 pieces
80-100 pieces
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Hard or soft wood
Hard wood is heavier, more
durable, & more
expensive
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Fine motor skills needed to
handle heavier blocks
-----------------------------------
Arm & body coordination
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Color/Contrast
No color (blocks only
varnished)
Cause & Effect
69
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail
No color or complex
structures
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
More advanced constructions
than 2-year-olds
Analyze component parts of
what they want to build
Visualize parts in relationship
to the others
Work through problems of
size, volume, space, &
weight
Even more progressed
structures
Dramatic story lines added to
constructions.
Loose parts combined with
blocks
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Examples of Products
Wooden kindergarten blocks
Number & letter blocks
Table blocks
Hollow blocks
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
70
Building Play
71
INTERLOCKING BUILDING MATERIALS
Interlocking building materials foster building play just like wooden, cardboard, and pillow
blocks do. Interlocking building materials are similar in nature to blocks because they may be
used to build something that represents an item in the physical world. However, they differ from
blocks significantly because of their ability to be joined, locked, or stay in a particular placement.
Through various connecting styles, pieces are snapped together to make creations that would be
impossible with traditional wooden table blocks.
True building play begins around 19 months of age and continues into adulthood. This play is
linked to children’s development because engaging in building play is evidence of children’s
progress. Children advance from simply handling objects and materials in their play to actively
using them for constructing or building with a pre-conceived plan in mind. They begin to
manipulate objects with the intention of creating something, such as a tower or a house. Children
younger than 19 months of age generally lack the manipulative skills necessary to use
interlocking building materials effectively. Therefore, the discussion in this subcategory starts at
19 months.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of interlocking building materials:
• Interlocking/Loose Parts
• Motor Skills Required
• Number of Parts
• Size of Parts
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of interlocking building materials are appropriate and how a particular age group
plays with these toys.
Building Play: Interlocking Building Materials
72
19 Through 23 Months
The cognitive ability for representational or symbolic thinking emerges during the 19- through
23-month time frame, and building play emerges as a result. Because children in this age group
can manipulate toys with more ease due to their ever-increasing fine motor skills, interlocking
block sets with simple connecting systems are suitable. Sets of large, chunky plastic bricks that
can be easily stacked or pressed together in a non-systematic way are often the earliest
appropriate interlocking system for children in this age group. Interlocking building sets that are
2 to 4 inches in size and 20 to 30 in quantity are appropriate. Plastic is an appropriate material for
these blocks.
2 Years
Play with interlocking building materials for 2-year-olds is very much the same as it is for the
previous age group. They participate in symbolic representation with their constructions, so a
stack of blocks may represent a tree. Therefore, appropriate interlocking building materials for 2-
year-old children are the same as those for 19- through 23-month-old children: 2 to 4 inches
across, plastic, and 20 to 30 pieces. Children this age can manage a simple screwing action, but
not other types of coordination like fitting a bolt into a flat piece of wood and attaching a nut.
3 Years
Three-year-old children can use interlocking building materials in purposeful ways, which
usually takes the form of stacking in an upward direction. They have the fine motor skills
necessary to manipulate most simple interlocking building sets that involve snapping, screwing,
pressing together or pulling apart, and nesting; so materials like notched log, suction cup
connecting blocks, or rod-and-spool connector pieces are appropriate. Children in this age
group’s motor skills are developed to a sufficient degree to use interlocking bricks that are
smaller (2 to 4 inches in length) and simple snap-together building toys. They want their
creations to become more realistic looking; so variety in materials that can snap onto these
interlocking bricks (for example, wheels, miniature people, and model trees) is appealing. The
addition of compatible figurines is appealing to this age group, because they enjoy pretend play
that is afforded by these additional accessories. Children at any younger age may lack the fine
Building Play: Interlocking Building Materials
73
motor skills needed to work with the interlocking pieces and may choose to spend their time
playing with the figurines.
Suction-cup connecting blocks are often too difficult for children younger than 3 years to
assemble, with a fair amount of gross motor skills needed to forcefully stick them together and
pull them apart. In addition, children at younger ages are more likely to use the suction cups as a
manipulative or as a fun item to chew or suck on. Rod and spool connector pieces also require a
fair amount of gross and fine motor skills that emerge around the age of 3--gross motor skills are
needed to push and snap them together, and fine motor skills are necessary to align a dowel into
the hole of a spool connector. Children may use rod and spool connector pieces to build familiar
objects at this age, such as making a lollipop or a set of wheels. However, on average, they lack
the cognitive ability to follow assembly directions, so interlocking model kits are not
appropriate. Instead, open-ended materials that allow children to create their own ideas are
attractive. Plastic and wood are appropriate materials, as are a variety of shapes, and an
increasing number of pieces (30 to 50). Very small, detail-oriented pieces that interlock are not
yet usable or of interest to children in this age group.
4 Through 5 Years
During this preschool period, building is a dominant play activity. The preschool child is capable
of working most types of interlocking building systems, such as notched logs, interlocking cogs,
snapping or pressing plastic bricks together, using nuts and bolts, connecting straws, and popping
tubes together. At this age, children finally have the gross motor skills and strength to insert flat
pieces into slots, as well as the fine motor skills to align them properly. Interlocking building
materials that are plastic or wood, and that come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and lengths, are
appropriate for children. A larger number of parts (80 to 100) is also appropriate. However, for
more complicated tasks, like using nuts and bolts, larger pieces are more suitable. Most children
do not understand how to hook up or use battery-powered building sets. However, children are
able to work with robotic blocks that create certain effects (i.e., light, movement) when placed in
a prescribed order. These children’s motor skills are developed to a sufficient degree to use
smaller pieces (less than 1 inch in length) and simple snap-together construction toys.
Building Play: Interlocking Building Materials
74
Children will now begin to refer to instructions for help in assembling an interlocking building
kit. Picture-based instructions are most helpful at this age due to still-developing reading skills.
6 Through 8 Years, 9 Through 12 Years
Early elementary age children find building with interlocking pieces highly interesting, much
more so than building sets that involve non-interlocking blocks. By the time children have
reached these ages, they have developed the cognitive abilities to follow directions and to
understand multi-step sequences, so working on complex model kits is appropriate. Theme- and
movie-based kits hold a high level of appeal, as do kits that produce realistic, detailed models.
Fine motor skills are generally well developed, so small pieces present relatively little difficulty.
They can build with sets using tiny screws, gears, nuts and bolts, and all-metal parts. The
appropriate number of parts varies according to the child and the planned design, but there is
essentially no limit to the number of parts for these ages. Generally, 100 pieces or more are
needed to provide sufficient material for children in this age group to build their designs. Sets
containing parts that vary widely in size (very small pieces less than 1 inch and large pieces 2 to
3 inches) and shape allow more intricate structures to be built, which increases their
attractiveness to children in this age group. By age 7 and 8 years, some children can build
structures using sets with moving, motorized, or computer chip-based components. Around age
9, model sets that include cement are appropriate. However, adult help may be required to ensure
proper use of materials.
Building Play: Interlocking Building Materials
75
76
BUILDING PLAY: INTERLOCKING BUILDING MATERIALS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
2-4 inches
--------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Brick blocks; thus, square & rectangular
shapes
--------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts*
20-30 pieces
--------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts*
Interlocking; simple connecting systems
that can be easily stacked or
snapped together in a non-
systematic way
--------------------------------------------------
Simple screwing action systems
Materials
Plastic
--------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Fine motor skills are more developed,
but child is still incapable of
manipulating objects to join
interlocking pieces
Child continually increases fine motor
skills; can manage simple
connecting systems
--------------------------------------------------
Child can handle simple screwing
motions
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/ Detail
Licensed Theme
77
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Emerging interests in novelty &
exploration
Solves problems via trial & error
Fine motor skills more developed, but
not ready for joining connectors.
Representational & symbolic thinking
Building play becomes a way of using
building materials
More refined fine motor skills
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Can handle simple screwing action, but
not other types of coordination such
as fitting a bolt in a flat piece of
wood & attaching a nut
Examples of Products
Generally not appropriate
Snap-lock beads
Large, chunky interlocking bricks/blocks
--------------------------------------------------
Large interlocking bricks/blocks
Interlocking foam puzzle mats
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
78
BUILDING PLAY: INTERLOCKING BUILDING MATERIALS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
2-3 inches
<1 inch for simple designs like
bricks
2-3 inches for more complicated
designs like nuts & bolts
----------------------------------------
Variety of very small (<1”), small
(1-2”) & large (2-3”) pieces
allow more intricate
structures to be built
----------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Variety of shapes
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Number of Parts*
30-50 pieces
80-100 pieces
100 pieces or more
----------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Simple interlocking designs:
snapping, screwing, press
together, rod & spool
connectors, notched logs,
suction cups, & nesting
----------------------------------------
Interlocking cogs, slot inserts,
large nuts & bolts,
connecting straws, popping
tubes together
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Tiny screws, nuts, gears, bolts
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Materials
Plastic or wood.
Variety in materials, such as
wheels, textures, miniature
people, and model trees are
appealing
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
All-metal parts
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Children of this age have the fine
motor skills necessary to
manipulate most
interlocking designs
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Small pieces present relatively
little difficulty
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail
Want their creations to become
more realistic-looking
----------------------------------------
Want kits that produce realistic,
detailed models
----------------------------------------
Licensed Theme
Theme & movie based kits hold
a high level of appeal
----------------------------------------
79
Classic
Classic building sets that use
notched logs or rods &
connectors
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Snap-together model car kits
----------------------------------------
Cement-based model car kits.
Robotic/Smart Features
Cannot understand how to hook
up &/or use battery
powered building sets
By age 7-8, capable of sets that
have moving, motorized,
&/or computer chip-based
components
Can work with robotic blocks that
create certain effects (i.e.,
light, movement) when
placed in a prescribed order
----------------------------------------
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Uses interlocking materials in
anticipated ways, which
usually involves stacking in
an upward direction
Has the fine motor skills
necessary to manipulate
most interlocking designs
Lacks the cognitive ability to
follow model kit assembly
directions.
Enjoys open-ended materials
that allow them to create
their own ideas
Enjoys realistic-looking materials
for their creations
Building play is a dominant
activity
----------------------------------------
Will begin to refer to directions
when looking for help in
how to assemble a building
kit, even if just studying
pictures
----------------------------------------
Finds building with interlocking
pieces highly interesting,
much more so than non-
interlocking building sets
---------------------------------------
Has cognitive abilities to follow
directions & step sequence
in model kits
Enjoys realistic, detailed models
& theme/movie based kits
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Examples of Products
Snap-lock beads
Smaller interlocking bricks
Notched logs
Sets using rods/dowels and
spool-like connector pieces
Work Bench Screws
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Large nuts & bolts
All examples from 4 Through 5
Years
Sets using irregularly shaped or
swiveling connector pieces
Sets that build realistic, detailed,
or transforming models
Sets that teach concepts of
simple machines like
wheels & axles, gears,
levers, and pulleys
Snap-together model car kits
Small nuts, bolts, & screws
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Cement-based model car kits
----------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
80
81
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY
As young children develop memory and begin to make symbolic connections between a toy and
a real-life object or person, they are laying the foundation for pretend and role-play. On average,
children begin rudimentary pretend and role-play with toys around 19 months of age. Such play
peaks in the pre-school years and gradually fades as children progress through their elementary
years, although role-playing may become important for some older school-aged children.
Dolls & Stuffed Toys (p. 83)
• Action figures
• Life-sized and oversized dolls and
accessories (e.g., baby dolls)
• Life-sized and oversized stuffed animals
• Miniature dolls & stuffed animals
• Peg dolls
• Small dolls & stuffed animals
Play Scenes & Puppets (p. 99)
• Dollhouses & thematic play scenes
• Marionettes
• Playhouses
• Pop-up scenes
• Sock, finger, hand, arm puppets
Dress-Up Materials (p. 109)
• Accessories (e.g., fake teeth, hats,
jewelry, masks, scarves, ties, wigs)
• Costumes (e.g., army, astronaut,
firefighter, holiday, police)
• Make-up and fingernail kits
• Media characters and superheroes
Small Vehicle Toys (p. 121)
• Boats
• Cars
• Motorcycles
• Planes
• Remote controlled vehicles
• Tracks, slopes, launchers for vehicles
• Trains
• Wind-up toys
Tools & Props (p. 135)
• Buckets
• Cash registers & money
• Decorative guns, holsters, helmets
• Hammers
• House cleaning tools
• Kitchen/cooking sets
• Medical kits & equipment
• Mobile communication devices (e.g.,
cellular phones, pagers)
• Plastic construction tools
• Rakes
• Shovels & Trowels
• Telephones
• Vacuums & lawnmowers
Pretend & Role Play
82
Pretend & Role Play
83
DOLLS & STUFFED TOYS
Dolls and stuffed toys can be appropriate for children of all ages. Often they become a child’s
first sensory objects. Children sometimes become attached to dolls and stuffed toys to feel a
sense of security or to show affection. Such attachment may last through preschool and into the
elementary school years. As cognitive abilities increase, dolls, action figures, and stuffed toys,
serve an important symbolic function in helping children learn to pretend and role-play. Older
children collect their favorite dolls, action figures, or stuffed toys.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of dolls & stuffed toys:
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Cause & Effect
• Size of Parts
• Licensed theme
• Color/Contrast
The order of these characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can change
with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics of
these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description of
what types of dolls and stuffed toys are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with
these toys.
Birth Through 3 Months
Children this age mostly enjoy sensing and feeling objects. They lack fine motor control, so dolls
and stuffed toys that are very lightweight (½ to 2 ounces) and have an easy-to-grip size—for
example, with limbs ¼-inch thick and lengths of 4 to 8 inches—are appropriate. They are more
appealing when they have a soft, felt-like texture, like plush toys, have highly contrasting colors
(for example, black and white) or basic contrasting patterns and faces, or have rich, vibrant
colors. Because children in this age group mouth most objects, dolls and stuffed toys should be
easily cleanable, with no hair or fur, no removable clothing or accessories, and no projecting
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
84
parts, like eyes or snouts. Clothing and moving eyes are not particularly appealing to this age
group, and stuffed animals should have facial features that are sewn. Dolls and stuffed toys with
very basic, one-piece construction are appropriate, and should be sturdy enough not to break or
pull apart.
4 Through 7 Months
Dolls and stuffed toys remain soft, lightweight, and simple in design for this age group. Besides
those characteristics described for younger children, children in this age group begin to
appreciate highly contrasting facial features. A high degree of realism or detail is not
recommended. Children in this age group enjoy toys with simple cause-and-effect features; for
example, dolls or stuffed toys with rattles inside them. They can best handle lightweight toys that
weigh no more than 2 ounces. Toys that are 4 to 12 inches in length are appropriate. Children in
this age group tend to mouth most objects, so dolls or stuffed toys with buttons, whiskers, bells,
ribbons, yarn wigs, or other such features are generally not appropriate. As they approach 8
months, children start to recognize words that are repeated. Such word recognition ability makes
dolls and stuffed toys that say single words or a set of single words most attractive to those
children. They also begin to recognize and become attracted to characters from familiar media,
like books and television.
8 Through 11 Months
While the same characteristics appeal as with younger children, children in this age group
become attracted to small dolls and stuffed animals that have a low degree of realistic detail,
especially facial features. They can most easily handle dolls and stuffed toys that weigh up to 3
to 6 ounces and are within 8- to 12-inches in length. Because children in this age group are
rolling around, crawling more, and learning to walk, musical plush toys and others with a wind-
up key or projecting surfaces are inappropriate.
12 Through 18 Months
The soft, simple, cuddly dolls and stuffed animals that were appropriate for children in the prior
age group are also appropriate for children ages 12-18 months. During this period, children start
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
85
to engage actively in imitative play with dolls and stuffed toys based on familiar family
relationships like mother and baby, or from watching television and other media. They are
attracted to mid-size (10 to 16 inches) dolls and stuffed animals that offer simple cause-and-
effect functions, such as push buttons that produce simple sounds or phrases, lights, and actions.
For the same reasons, children in this age group like manipulating extremities or heads to create
different postures and looks.
Because young children have a low degree of fine motor dexterity and control, dolls and stuffed
toys are best when they are easy to grip (for example, limbs ½ inch thick) and weigh no more
than 4 to 8 ounces. Additionally, appropriate dolls and stuffed toys generally lack removable,
loose, or projecting parts. Hand-sewn eyes with high contrast are commonly used over movable
eyes. Because children in this age group still mouth toys a great deal, appropriate toys are
washable or easily cleaned. Suitable dolls tend to have only molded hair, if any, and stuffed
animals lack fur.
19 Through 23 Months
Children at this age still imitate a great deal, basing such play mostly on familiar domestic and
media themes. They are attracted to dolls and stuffed toys that have a low-to-moderate level of
cause-and-effect functionality. For example, they enjoy pushing buttons or areas on a doll or
stuffed toy to produce combinations of sound, lights, or action. They like to make simple
manipulations of extremities or heads, and create different postures and looks (see also the
Exploratory and Practice Play category). They can appreciate a low-to-moderate level of
realistic detail and rich vibrant colors. Vinyl or rubber dolls with simple accessories, like a toy
baby bottle or blanket are appropriate. At this age, children have the gross motor skills needed to
stand and push strollers, and have also cognitively reached a stage where they can pretend to take
dolls and stuffed animals on “walks” using the stroller. As they approach 2 years of age,
children have a simple set of basic words and phrases and can engage in simple pretend episodes.
Therefore, dolls and stuffed toys that speak simple phrases or sentences are appropriate.
Because children in this age group still mouth toys, appropriate dolls do not have hair and
appropriate stuffed animals do not have long fur. Also for this reason, dolls and stuffed toys are
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
86
washable or easily cleaned. They are easily grasped and supported in the air. They may be
slightly heavier than those appropriate for younger children (6 to 12 ounces). Children in this age
group also enjoy playing with small peg dolls (see Pretend & Role Play: Play Scenes &
Puppets).
2 Years
Although they still imitate a great deal, children in this age group increasingly recognize the
symbolic connections between toys and the real world, and they start to pretend more often than
younger children. This pretend play also occurs in more complex ways. Children in this age
group have a low-to-moderate degree of fine motor dexterity and control and can handle slightly
larger (12 to 18 inches) and heavier (8 to 16 ounces) dolls and stuffed toys. Soft, rounded,
pliable, and cuddly dolls and stuffed toys are most attractive. Pale or pastel colors also begin to
attract this age group. Dolls and stuffed toys may have a small number (about two to four) of
familiar toy accessories, such as a pet carrier, bone, blanket, stroller, or baby bottle. Children will
also pretend to feed a doll with a baby bottle at this age. Bottles with faux liquid inside, which
disappears when flipped over, may be introduced to this age group due to children’s familiarity
with baby bottles.
Appropriate dolls and stuffed toys are easily carried, non-threatening, and familiar-looking with
a friendly appearance. Characteristics like these are important for children in this age group to
initiate pretend episodes and to practice being friends or caring partners. As children in this age
group approach 3 years of age, dolls become more appealing when they have a low-to-moderate
level of realistic details in their facial features, hair, clothing, and accessories. This is especially
true for baby dolls. Children of this age also begin to appreciate eyes that move, like baby dolls
that sleep and wake up. Dolls and stuffed toys that are stiffly posed or elaborately detailed (e.g.,
those with fine lace or intricate patterns on clothing, or those with facial wrinkles) are not as
appealing.
Two-year-olds are attracted to dolls and stuffed toys that have a low-to-moderate level of cause-
and-effect, such as toys that produce sounds, lights, or other actions when pushed, or ones that
permit simple manipulations of the heads or extremities. Children in this age group will squeeze
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
87
dolls and stuffed toys in various places to see if they can cause some kind of effect. Single,
predictable interactions with talking dolls and stuffed toys activated by a button press begin to
foster a sense of control and mastery, especially if they are associated with familiar characters
the child recognizes from various media, books, or family and everyday contexts. Familiarity and
captivating cause-and-effect features can help to balance out less cuddly forms, dull colors, and
other less desirable features. Interactive or talking toys that require sequential actions to use them
are less appealing. Additionally, any sound that is too loud, sudden, or extreme could cause the
child to avoid the toy.
Because they desire independent functioning, children of this age enjoy dolls and stuffed toys
that are easy to take care of and dress; so those with simple hats or with vests that have large arm
holes would be appropriate. Children in this age group also enjoy toys with usable pockets or
ones with easy-to-use pull strings and push buttons that initiate various actions. Two-year-olds
can remove clothing, but may have difficulty redressing, if clothing uses buttons or snaps.
Fasteners that are more easily usable by children in this age group include large buttons, hooks,
and hook-and-loop or touch fasteners. They like simple dress-me dolls (with easy to remove
clothing) and will pretend to bathe dolls, especially ones that are washable and submersible.
Smaller dolls, as well as life-sized dolls, and accessories (e.g., baby dolls with grooming
supplies) also appeal to this age group, as do wooden or plastic peg dolls. Children in this age
group will pull on the limbs, head, and fur of the toy, and may brush a doll’s hair. Doll hair and
stuffed animal fur, if they are firmly rooted and tangle free, are less likely to be pulled out by the
brushing or pulling actions of children in this age group.
Medium-sized stuffed toys (12 to 16 inches in length), like teddy bears and other animals, are
more appealing when in tandem, like a mother and baby combination, because this offers the
child greater pretend possibilities. They also enjoy larger or life-sized stuffed toys that they can
drag around, climb on, and cuddle. They become more aware of dolls and stuffed toys that are
licensed, and this begins to influence their preferences and ultimate enjoyment of these toys.
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
88
3 Years
Three-year-olds have a moderate degree of dexterity and fine motor control, and begin to enjoy
low-to-moderately-complex cause-and-effect in their pretend play. They like to push buttons and
to use devices that produce sound, lights, or action, and more specialized, realistic features like
talking, crying, sucking, wetting, and walking. Bottles with faux liquid inside that disappears
when the bottle is flipped over add to the detail in pretend play accessories that children begin to
seek in this age group. They prefer dolls and stuffed toys with about a dozen diverse, easy-to-
manipulate loose parts, and moving eyes. These children possess the cognitive skills to create
pretend-play scenes with dolls that come with props and accessories, such as using a doll with
doctor supplies to take care of other dolls or animals. If the doll portrays a familiar media
character, children may act out familiar scenes that they have seen with the character in books or
television. These children have greater fine motor skills for manipulating doll accessories.
They become more adept at identifying and enjoy licensed fantasy characters like robots and
superheroes, and they begin to develop an interest in simple collectibles. They also enjoy a
moderate level of realistic detail, preferring dolls and stuffed animals that have accurate
proportions and anatomy, moderately authentic parts, and body parts that can move in multiple
directions. These children may be introduced to action figures with simple folding, or one- to
two-step transformations. Given children’s budding cognitive skills that allow them to pretend at
this age, children may use dolls or figurines to engage in behaviors typical of that figure. For
example, if given a toy dinosaur or bird, a child may pretend to make it fly or flap its wings.
Children in this age group can manipulate clothing with large openings that allow easy dressing
and undressing, as well as those with large buttons, hooks, and hook-and-loop or touch fasteners.
Children in this age group are also able to handle slightly heavier (12 to 18 ounces) and larger
(16 to 20 inches) dolls and stuffed animals than younger children can.
4 Through 5 Years
Children in this age group enjoy moderately to highly detailed, familiar, realistic dolls and
stuffed toys to incorporate into their moderately to highly complex pretend play. Dolls and
stuffed animals designed for moderately to highly complex cause-and-effect appear to promote
more complex and longer periods of pretend play. Since they have moderate problem-solving
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
89
abilities and have developed richer symbolic meanings in their toys, 4- and 5-year-olds prefer
fashion, military, and other thematic dolls (e.g., 1:6 scale dolls with various outfits or
accessories), action figures about 4 to 8 inches in length, and stuffed toys that become the major
characters for enacting diverse, often extended stories, during pretend or role-play. Children in
this age group can manipulate the parts of a foldable action figure so that it transforms from one
form into another over the course of two or more steps (whichever version it was not in when
given to the child).
The dolls and stuffed toys that offer the greatest degree of interest to children in this age group
are often based on licensed characters and on themes from various experiences at home, school,
and through the media (television, videos, computer games, movies, and books). They are
attracted more to dolls and stuffed animals that are collectible, as well as larger or oversized
ones. They enjoy well-defined facial features, dressing dolls and stuffed toys with simple outfits,
and choosing among many loose parts like grooming supplies. Such toys may also have
moderately to highly complex cause-and-effect, such as animatronic interactive animals with
multi-directional rotation of body parts, multiple functions, or multiple voice, light, sound,
movement responses to buttons pushed, or smart-chip accessories that are plugged-in. At this
age, children have the socioemotional capabilities of envisioning interactions between two dolls
or stuffed toys. Toys that move, bounce, sing, talk, or dance with a button press or voice
activation may result in some children trying to make one interactive doll or stuffed toy to talk to
another. Animatronic animals and other figurines or dolls that can customize their responses to
users are appealing in this age group because of the level of realism they afford. Children can set
up scenarios where the doll interacts with other objects in the room to create a more complex
play scene, a strong desire that peaks around age 4, when children are at the height of using their
imaginations. At any younger age, children may focus too much on the toy’s interactive qualities
in a non-representational way (i.e., spending time fiddling with the toy’s moving ears or legs
without any pretense). They also are attracted to smart, robotic dolls and stuffed toys that feature
various reactions to different stimuli or a lack of stimuli, and begin to master these toys (see
Technology Play: Smart Toys & Educational Software).
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
90
6 Through 8 Years
Young school-aged children engage in fewer pretend episodes than preschoolers, so structured
activities become more attractive. Their pretend play becomes more drama-oriented with longer,
more complex scenes and plays. Because they can readily transform symbolic meanings and
have moderate-to-high problem-solving abilities as they mature through this period, 6- through
8-year-olds enjoy using dolls and stuffed animals in their diverse, often extended stories.
Children in this age group enjoy life-sized or oversized dolls and stuffed animals that have many
accessories. Thematic18-inch dolls with realistic additional parts are appealing at this age
because they are often one of the few dolls that older children will no longer consider too
“babyish.” The large variety of accessories and clothing available for these dolls portrays them
in real-life, mature activities that the child may have experienced or may wish to do when they
get older (gymnastics, swimming, ice skating, soccer). These varied accessories allow children to
create different types of play scenes that are no longer solely based on nurturance (e.g., feeding,
tucking doll into crib), but rather, activities that are enjoyed at this age. They also enjoy
miniature dolls (e.g., 1:6 scale) that are more fashion oriented. Children of this age have a keen
awareness of, and interest in, licensed characters and collectibles that are popularized mostly by
mass media. They enjoy diverse opportunities to engage with the accessories that typically go
with many dolls and stuffed toys. In addition, their dexterity, fine motor control, and gross motor
skills allow children in this age group to manipulate most small parts, such as fingers that move
and small levers or buttons that activate features. Foldable figurines that can morph into two
separate characters are of interest at this age. The ability to change the character in their play
scene adds a layer of complexity that appeals to this age group. Foldable figurines also allow for
children to exercise their fine motor skills when gripping the tiny pieces that need to be held
when changing the character.
9 Through 12 Years
Older school-agers mostly prefer to collect dolls and stuffed toys that are highly detailed, highly
functional, authentic, and unique. Such toys include fashion or miniature dolls that are also used
as decorative pieces, especially dolls with ornate costumes. They are often licensed and come
with numerous licensed accessories.
Pretend & Role Play: Dolls & Stuffed Toys
91
92
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: DOLLS & STUFFED TOYS
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts*
Length 4-8 inches
Ultra-lightweight, no more than 0.5-2
ounces
Easily grasped & supported in the air
Length 4-12 inches
Ultra-lightweight, no more than 2
ounces
-----------------------------------------------
Length 8-12 inches
Lightweight, no more than 3-6 ounces
--------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Very basic 1-piece construction
Sturdy: toy will not break or pull apart
Thick, round edges; no hard corners or
projecting parts
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
No removable, loose parts, or clothing
-----------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Materials
Soft, felt-like, pliable, & cuddly
No hair (unless molded), clothing, fur,
bells, buttons, ribbons or whiskers
Washable or easily cleaned
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Lack fine- or gross motor control
Stronger with small degree of fine- &
gross motor control
--------------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast*
Highly contrasting color (e.g., black &
white) &/or basic patterns
Rich, vibrant colors
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
Small degree of cause-and-effect
functionality (e.g., shaking
produces sound)
Small degree of cause-and-effect
functionality (e.g., shaking
produces sound or basic words &
phrases)
--------------------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
Soft textures
Soft sounds (e.g., rattles, music)
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
More diverse sounds, lights, & actions
93
Level of Realism/Detail*
Friendly looking features, especially
face
Highly contrasting facial features, or
hand-sewn
No eyes that move
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Licensed theme*
Start to recognize familiar characters
from media & domestic context
--------------------------------------------------
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
High tendency to mouth objects
Sensing & feeling objects
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Begins sitting & later crawling
Begins to recognize oft-repeated words
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Established crawlers & climbers
Beginning walkers
Awareness of object permanence &
symbolic representation
Examples of Products
Small dolls (baby, bean bag, rag dolls)
Small stuffed or plush animals
Music dolls & stuffed toys
Grab-on soft toys
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
94
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: DOLLS & STUFFED TOYS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Length 10-16 inches
Lightweight, up to 4-8 ounces
Easily grasped & supported in the air (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------------
Lightweight, up to 6-12 ounces
-----------------------------------------------------
Length 12-18 inches
Moderate weight, up to 8-16 ounces
-----------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Very basic 1-piece construction (cont’d)
Sturdy (toy will not break or pull apart)
(cont’d)
Thick, round edges; no hard corners or
projecting parts (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
2-4
Interlocking/Loose Parts
No removable, loose parts, or clothing
(cont’d)
Doll bottle or blanket
Doll bottle, blanket, stroller, or bone
Materials
Soft, felt-like, pliable, & cuddly
No hair (unless molded), clothing, fur, bells,
buttons, ribbons or whiskers
Washable or easily cleaned
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Pliable & large openings in clothing for ease
of dressing & undressing
Large buttons, hooks, and hook-and-loop or
touch fasteners
Motor Skills Required
Low degree of fine motor dexterity & control
Easy rotation of body parts
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Low to moderate degree of fine motor
dexterity & control.
-----------------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast*
Rich, vibrant colors
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Pale or pastel colors
Cause & Effect*
Pays close attention to simple cause-and-
effect functionality (e.g., pushing
produces sound, lights or action)
Enjoys low to moderate level of cause-and-
effect functionality (e.g., pushing
produces sound, lights, action, or simple
manipulations of extremities or heads)
Toys activated by button press
95
Sensory Elements
Soft textures (cont’d)
More diverse sounds, lights, & actions
(cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail*
Friendly looking features, especially face
(cont’d)
Highly contrasting facial features, or hand-
sewn (cont’d)
No eyes that move (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Eyes that move or blink
Licensed theme*
Start to recognize familiar characters from
media & domestic context (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------------
Increased recognition of licensed forms
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
High tendency to mouth objects (cont’d)
Sensing & feeling objects (cont’d)
Very simple imitative & pretend play
Established sense for object permanence
Babbles with some spoken words & word
comprehension
Mouth objects to lesser degree
-----------------------------------------------------
Simple pretend & imitative of domestic- &
media-based themes
More aware of symbolic connections
Some spoken words & phrases, & word
comprehension
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
More, increasingly complex pretend
Increased recognition of symbolic
connections
Increasing spoken words, phrases,
sentences & word comprehension
Examples of Products
Small dolls (baby, bean bag, rag) (cont’d)
Small stuffed or plush animals (cont’d)
Music dolls & stuffed toys (cont’d)
Washable rubber baby dolls
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Peg dolls
Doll stroller
-----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------
Simple dress-me dolls
-----------------------------------------------------
Combinations like mother & baby
---------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
96
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: DOLLS & STUFFED TOYS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Toy & Parts*
Length 16-20 inches
Weighing no more than 12-18
ounces
Larger or oversized
About 1:6 scale thematic dolls
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Numerous, about a dozen
10-20
----------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Diverse
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Materials
Soft, felt-like, pliable, & cuddly
Pliable & large openings in
clothing for ease of
dressing & undressing
(cont’d)
Large buttons, hooks, and hook-
and-loop or touch fasteners
(cont’d)
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Moderate degree of fine motor
dexterity & control
Easy to manipulate accessories,
loose parts (e.g., baby dolls
with grooming supplies),
buttons, & joy sticks
Moderate degree of dexterity,
strength, fine motor & gross
motor skills
Moderate to high degree of
dexterity, strength, & gross
motor skills
High degree of dexterity,
strength, & gross motor
skills
Color/Contrast*
Rich, vibrant colors (cont’d)
Pale or pastel colors (cont’d)
Rich, vibrant colors, as well as
realistic colors (e.g., black,
beige)
Well-defined facial features
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
Enjoys moderately complex
cause-and-effect
functionality (pushing
produces sound, lights or
action producing more
specialized, realistic
features like talking, crying,
sucking & wetting)
Moderate to high level of
complex cause-and-effect
(multiple functions, multi-
directional rotating body
parts, numerous light,
voice/sound, or movement
responses to buttons, joy
sticks, or smart-chip
accessories)
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
97
Level of Realism/Detail*
Moderate level of realistic detail
(accurate proportions &
anatomy of forms,
moderately authentic loose
parts, multi-directional
rotation of body parts)
Moderate to highly realistic
details (well-defined facial
features, removable outfits)
Highly functional & realistic or
minute details
----------------------------------------
Authentic looking
Licensed theme*
Licensed forms popularized by
mass media
Greater appeal of licensed forms
popularized by mass media
Uses & adapts themes from
experience at home,
school, & various media
(television, videos,
computer games, movies, &
books)
----------------------------------------
Classic
Beginning interest in simple
collectibles
Continuing interest in collectibles
Strong interest in collectibles
----------------------------------------
Robotic/Smart Features
Simple buttons, joystick, or hand-
held device
More advanced joystick and
hand-held devices
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Low to moderately complex
pretend play
More adept at making symbolic
connections
Low to moderate level of partner
or group interactions
Moderately to highly complex
pretend play
Moderate problem-solving
abilities
Extensive level of partner or
group interactions
More structured, goal-oriented
dramatic role-play
Moderate to high problem-
solving abilities
Moderate to high level of
independent functioning
Long, complex, structured
dramatic performances
Advanced problem-solving
abilities
Examples of Products
Dolls with doctor supplies
Doll bottles with faux
disappearing liquid
Wooden & plastic peg dolls
Simple action figures
Fantasy character/action figures
----------------------------------------
Life-sized dolls & accessories
Life-sized stuffed animals
----------------------------------------
Fashion, military, & other
thematic dolls (about 1:6
scale)
Animatronic interactive animals
Foldable action figure
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Oversized dolls & stuffed toys
Unusual, unique dolls & stuffed
toys
----------------------------------------
18-inch thematic dolls with
realistic accessories
Foldable figurines that can
morph into two separate
characters.
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
98
Pretend & Role Play
99
PLAY SCENES & PUPPETS
Play scenes and puppets help children to imitate and recreate familiar contexts, and to pretend
and role-play as they construct dramatic scenes and stories. Children about 12 months of age
may enjoy plush animal puppets that are also used as stuffed animals, although this is not
considered true puppet play. Until children reach about 19 months of age, adults may model play
with puppets or play scenes. At 19 months, children develop a greater capacity for making the
symbolic connections that support pretend play, and they start to engage in simple pretend
activities with play scenes and puppets. Preschool is the time of peak interest in play scenes and
puppets. School-age children enjoy more diverse and complex play scenes and puppetry. Play
scenes include miniature models, play sets, dollhouses, and pop-up scenes, all of which may
come with characters, small vehicles, props, or a variety of accessories. Puppets start off as
simple sock-like designs and evolve into elaborate hand puppets and marionettes, which may be
used in conjunction with stages and scenery.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of play scenes and puppets:
• Motor Skills Required
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Interlocking/Loose Parts
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of play scenes and puppets are appropriate and how a particular age group plays
with these toys.
12 Through 18 Months
This age group may use a soft plush animal puppet, like a stuffed animal: cuddling and carrying
it. They may also explore short, simple, sock-like puppets. Sizes tend to range from 8 to 12
inches, and they typically weigh 4 to 8 ounces. Puppets that portray familiar characters or have
Pretend & Role Play: Play Scene & Puppets
100
simple detail and contrasting facial features—especially eyes—are appealing to children in this
age group. The openings should be large enough for easy hand access. Because this age has only
limited dexterity and fine motor control, puppets with arms or long hand/arm puppets are not
appropriate, and will not be suitable until the child is about 3 years old. Although children in this
age group are not yet ready for true pretend play with objects, they may enjoy handling and
carrying around small people and animals, or putting people into cars. As with puppets, these
small figures need not be minutely detailed.
19 Through 23 Months
At 19 months, children start to have enough fine motor control and cognitive ability to
manipulate simple sock-puppets and play scenes, as well as large accessories (2 to 4 inches), as
they conduct simple pretend play. They begin to enjoy simple, realistic (though not detailed),
familiar play sets and miniature models with easy access to one or two large areas with about
two to six people, animals, vehicles, or accessories. Examples include simple kitchens, farms,
gas stations, airplanes, pop-up scenes like fire trucks, and play sets that have vehicles with small
figures like peg people. Although children in this age group do not need the small figures to have
moving parts or elaborate detail, they do prefer ones with salient features, such as painted faces,
plastic hair, or hats. Children in this age group are more capable of carrying play scenes that are
constructed from lightweight plastic or wood, and that weigh 8 to 12 ounces.
2 Years
Two-year-olds become better at making simple symbolic connections and at controlling fine
motor movements that allow them to position a few (two to six) large pieces (2 to 4 inches).
They continue to prefer the same simple play scenes, yet with a low-to-moderate degree of
realistic detail. They are attracted to simple moving parts, like cranks or doors that they can slide
or open via hinges with a basic pincer grip.
As they approach 3 years, children become attracted to simple sock and mitten puppets in which
operation of the mouth encourages opening and closing with the thumb opposing the four
Pretend & Role Play: Play Scene & Puppets
101
fingers. Openings at the base of the puppet should permit entry of their fist. They also begin to
enjoy finger puppets as they practice fine motor control.
3 Years
Most 3-year-olds are primed for exploring and pretending with play scenes and puppets. They
are much more adept than 2-year-olds at making symbolic connections and working with their
fingers and hands. They prefer play scenes and puppets of moderate complexity and realistic
detail. They enjoy dollhouses and other familiar play scenes that have easy access to a few large
areas with about a dozen loose parts that are easily positioned and repositioned. They also enjoy
small playhouses or pop-up scenes where they can step in and take charge of their pretend
episodes.
Three-year-olds use sock, mitten, hand, arm, and finger puppets for pretend play more than 2-
year-olds do. As they approach 4 years of age, children in this age group are attracted to puppets
with mouth and arm openings for simple thumb and finger manipulations. Other than well-
defined puppet faces, they do not require extensive detail.
4 Through 5 Years
Their moderate degree of dexterity and fine motor control allow children in this age group to
enjoy dollhouses and play scenes that have 10 to 20 loose parts of most sizes. They can
manipulate most working mechanisms with screw actions and sections with multiple parts, and
can manipulate pieces ½-inch in size. Licensed play scenes start to become important to children
in this age group. They are attracted to action/adventure sets and military forts that have
moderate-to-highly-realistic details and that come with a wide variety of realistic accessories.
They enjoy the challenge of positioning small objects in small rooms or areas. Besides thematic
appeal, playhouses also appeal to children in this age group for the relatively private space they
provide so children can carry out intensive pretend play.
Children’s interest in puppetry reaches its zenith with 4- and 5-year-olds. Children in this age
group enjoy the same puppets as before, yet they display more finger and fine motor skills to
manipulate these puppets with greater effect. Hence, their puppets can be slightly more complex
Pretend & Role Play: Play Scene & Puppets
102
to operate. They place greater emphasis on telling stories and conducting plays that use simple
puppet theaters.
6 Through 8 Years
Children in this age group are attracted to highly realistic, minutely detailed, and highly
functional play scenes. They enjoy elaborate dollhouses with miniature figures and animals so
they can incorporate familiar themes (e.g., home or outer space) into their more structured, goal-
oriented dramatic play. This age group develops a keen awareness of licensed characters and
collectibles. They exhibit a moderate-to-high level of dexterity and fine motor skills as they
manipulate a wide variety of accessories of mostly smaller sizes. Although their interest in
playhouses subsides during this period, they still occasionally like the larger, more realistically
detailed and functional ones.
Children in this age group enjoy operating puppets that are more complex and jointed, and ones
that have hard heads and painted faces. They are attracted to puppets that have a high degree of
realistic detail, function, and elaborate costumes, accessories, or scenery. They now can start
manipulating simple string puppets or marionettes. At this age, children are able to master the
use of puppets, where one hand controls the mouth, and the other controls a rod that manipulates
the puppet’s arm. Gross motor skills needed to hold up the puppet, as well as coordination
between both of the children’s hands to fully control the puppet are not yet developed until this
age group. Children in this age group enjoy operating thematic puppet theaters with curtains for
acting out extended stories.
9 Through 12 Years
Interest in play scenes wanes during this period; however, some children are still interested and
are attracted to dollhouses and other scenes that have authentic and detailed furnishings or
accessories. Because they can readily transform and manipulate symbolic meanings and
manipulate objects with a high degree of dexterity and fine motor control, 9- through 12-year-
olds enjoy more complex hand puppets, string puppets, and marionettes. Puppets also appeal for
their scrupulous attention to detail and authenticity, closely resembling adult versions of real-life
Pretend & Role Play: Play Scene & Puppets
103
equipment. They desire their puppet theaters to have authentic staging mechanisms and elaborate
scenery.
104
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: PLAY SCENES & PUPPETS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts
Puppets with large enough openings for
easy hand access
Puppets of length 8-12 inches
Lightweight puppets, up to 4-8 ounces
Lightweight play scenes for carrying, up
to 8-12 ounces
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Small parts at least 2-4 inches in size
Shape of Parts
Easy access to 1 or 2 large areas
-----------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
2-6
-----------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts*
Simple moving parts like cranks or
doors that they can slide or open
via hinges
Materials
Soft textures
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Limited dexterity & fine motor control
Can handle and carry lightweight play
scenes and figures
Low degree of dexterity & fine motor
control
Ability to manipulate simple play scenes
& sock-puppets
Low to moderate degree of dexterity &
fine motor control
Controlling fine motor movements that
permit placement of a few large
pieces
Opening & closing basic pincer grip
Color/Contrast
Contrasting facial features, especially
eyes
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
105
Level of Realism/Detail*
Puppets & figures are familiar
characters or animals
Familiar play sets & miniature models
Simple, realistic (though not much
detail)
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Low to moderate level of realistic detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Simple imitative play
Not yet ready for true pretend play
Simple pretend play with domestic &
media-based themes
Better at making simple symbolic
connections
Examples of Products
Simple sock-like puppets
Small, simple play scenes like kitchens,
farms, gas stations, airplanes
Simple pop-up scenes like fire trucks
Simple play sets like those that have
vehicles with small figures
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Simple sock, mitten, & finger puppets
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
106
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: PLAY SCENES & PUPPETS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Puppets with large enough
openings for easy hand
access (cont’d)
Easy access to a few large
areas
Small play scene pieces
around 0.5 inch
Small rooms or areas
Accessories of mostly smaller
sizes
-----------------------------------
---------------------------------
---------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
About a dozen
10-20
-----------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts*
Simple moving parts like cranks
or doors that they can slide
or open via hinges (cont’d)
More complex, like screw
actions & sections with
multiple parts
Wide variety of accessories
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
---------------------------------
---------------------------------
Materials
Soft textures (cont’d)
---------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Moderate degree of dexterity &
fine motor control
Much better at working with
their fingers & hands than
2-year-olds
Positioning & repositioning of
small pieces
---------------------------------
Able to manipulate most
working mechanisms
---------------------------------
Moderate to high degree of
dexterity & fine motor
skills
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
High degree of dexterity &
fine motor skills
---------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
107
Level of Realism/Detail*
Puppets are familiar characters
or animals (cont’d)
Moderate level of realistic detail
Well-defined facial features
---------------------------------
Moderate to highly realistic
details
---------------------------------
Highly functional & realistic or
minute details
Elaborate costumes,
accessories, & scenery
---------------------------------
---------------------------------
Authentic looking
Licensed theme
Licensed play scenes start
to become important
Keen awareness of licensed
characters & collectibles
---------------------------------
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Low to moderately complex
pretend play
More adept at making symbolic
connections than 2-year-
olds
Moderately to highly
complex pretend play
More adept at pretend than
3-year-olds
Telling stories, conducting
plays
More structured, goal-
oriented dramatic play
Long, complex, structured
dramatic performances
Examples of Products
Sock, mitten, hand, arm, &
finger puppets
Puppets with mouth & arm
openings for simple thumb
& finger manipulations
Simple dollhouses & miniature
play sets of familiar themes
Pop-up scenes (cont’d)
Playhouses
Slightly more complex
sock, mitten, hand,
arm, & finger puppets
---------------------------------
Simple puppet theaters
More detailed dollhouses &
miniature play sets of
familiar themes
---------------------------------
---------------------------------
Action/adventure & military
sets
Hand, arm, finger, jointed, or
simple string puppets &
marionettes
Puppets with hard heads &
painted faces
Thematic puppet theaters
with curtains
Elaborate dollhouses with
miniature figures,
animals, & accessories
Familiar themes like home or
outer space
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Puppets with rod to control
arm
---------------------------------
String puppets & marionettes
---------------------------------
Authentic puppet theaters
---------------------------------
---------------------------------
---------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
108
Pretend & Role Play
109
DRESS-UP MATERIALS
Dress-up materials include costumes, accessories, jewelry, and dress-up kits that appeal to
children of all ages, except infants. These materials also include related crafts, such as jewelry-
making, bead-stringing, weaving, and braiding kits. As children develop greater cognitive
awareness and manual dexterity, they can use dress-up materials in more sophisticated ways of
pretending. They use experiences with various media (primarily television, videos, computers,
and books), family, and friends to perform imitatively or to live out fantasies of their own
construction.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of dress-up materials:
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Licensed theme
• Materials
• Motor Skills Required
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
description of what types of dress-up materials are appropriate and how a particular age group
plays with these products.
12 Through 18 Months
Children around 12 months use very simple forms of imitation and pretend play with objects and
others, including imitation of adults and older peers. As they approach 18 months, they progress
toward more basic forms of pretend and imitation with dress-up materials in conjunction with
learning babbling and simple words. Although they do not pretend play much until they are
closer to 18 months, young children do begin to enjoy basic dress-ups and costumes like easy-to-
put-on, one-piece bracelets and hair accessories. Although they may need help, older children in
Pretend & Role Play: Dress-Up Materials
110
this age group like easy-to-put-on, sleeveless, slip-on costumes without fasteners and with large
openings for arms and legs.
Children in this age group often enjoy putting on necklaces, but this can present a strangulation
hazard. Therefore, suitable necklaces for this age group are designed so they let children easily
put them on and take them off without posing a strangulation hazard (e.g., through the use of a
break-away design). Children in this age group mouth objects and do not have the fine motor
skills to use the materials in make-up kits or to use materials with sharp edges or points.
Appropriate accessories have thick, rounded edges.
19 Through 23 Months
Children 19 through 23 months of age become more aware that costumes and accessories are
symbolic for other characters, many of them licensed. Around 19 months, the appeal of dress-up
materials starts to increase along with the child’s increase in fine motor dexterity and control,
such as the use of a pincer grasp between thumb and forefinger. They become more adept at
undoing hook-and-loop or touch fasteners, though they still have some difficulty re-matching
these types of fasteners. They continue to enjoy the same materials as before, but they also enjoy
lacing objects with simple purposes in mind, such as lacing cubes or boards with large holes or
thick blunt spindles, wood or plastic materials, and braided or plastic string, and stringing large
beads (see also Media Play: Arts & Crafts).
Children in this age range are attracted to a variety of basic dress-up materials like shoes, hats,
headscarves, other hair accessories, snap-on ties, bracelets, and necklaces. They prefer a simple
level of detail like basic non-elaborate shapes and rich, vibrant colors. They continue putting
necklaces and other items around their neck, so toys of this kind must not present a strangulation
hazard. Suitable jewelry is easy to put on and take off, such as elastic bracelets, and has thick,
rounded edges. Children in this age group enjoy wearing costumes or accessories that remind
them of characters from television programs or movies.
Pretend & Role Play: Dress-Up Materials
111
2 Years
At age 2, children start to pretend-play more often and in more complex ways, preferring dress-
up materials that have a low degree of realistic detail. They are learning to appreciate and enjoy
the symbolic transformations that dress-up materials allow like becoming mother or baby and
playing house. As they grow closer to 3 years of age, they have little difficulty becoming the
characters that their costume suggests, acting out common behaviors and expressions of
characters and pets, especially those from television and other media. They are developing
greater dexterity, and around 30 months of age they become more adept at matching hook-and-
loop or touch fasteners, and using large buttons, buckles, or hooks as on frames and cubes. They
enjoy independently putting on simple costumes (e.g., dresses, hats, and gloves) and accessories
like elastic bracelets and simple wigs. They also enjoy playing with dress-me dolls, lacing cards
or shoes, and stringing beads. Handheld mirrors, especially those with a familiar fantasy theme
like princesses, appeal to children in this age group for role-playing purposes. Easy-to-put-on
jewelry, such as elastic bracelets and long necklaces that do not require the child to hook or latch
them and do not pose a strangulation hazard, are likely to appeal to this age. Earrings or short
necklaces that cannot be viewed by the child are of less interest.
3 Years
Three-year-olds look forward to pretending with costumes, accessories, and kits of moderately
realistic detail in rich, vibrant colors or pastel colors. Due to their increased dexterity, fine motor
control, and problem-solving abilities, children in this age group are better able to put on and
take off costumes and accessories. They enjoy costumes and dress-up materials with themes,
such as superheroes, identifiable professions like doctor, police, and firefighter, and accessories
like wigs and masks. Jewelry, like bracelets, necklaces, rings and earrings, appeal when they
have a moderate level of realistic detail in form and function. With some degree of success, they
can work with simple snaps and with relatively large buttons, hooks, lacing, and buckles. They
can use longer string with a stiff end, and start to create simple sequential or repeated patterns of
beads, like red and blue.
They enjoy playing with smaller beads for stringing, and with simple weaving toys, sewing
cards, looper looms, and simple sewing kits (see also Media Play: Arts & Crafts). Although they
Pretend & Role Play: Dress-Up Materials
112
still have some difficulty exercising fine motor control with manicure, make-up, and disguise
kits, children in this age group understand better how to use these kits safely and appropriately
for dress-up play. These have a basic understanding of the dynamics of good and evil, and begin
to enjoy games like cops and robbers. They also enjoy other simple story lines that involve
exploration, dinosaurs, pets, and family contexts. Three-year-old children are better able to
remove a necklace from around their neck, but require large hooks or other fasteners that can be
easily separated or undone.
4 Through 5 Years
This age group demonstrates more expansive conceptualizations of symbolic meanings and
moderate problem-solving abilities. Children 4 and 5 years old develop greater sophistication in
their pretend play and more often enact extended stories. They enjoy more elaborate, detailed
costumes (e.g., superheroes and identifiable professions), accessories (e.g., rings, earrings,
bracelets, necklaces, wigs, hats, ties, and gloves), and kits (i.e., manicure, make-up, and disguise
kits) that increase their opportunities for independently developing and extending more complex
dramas and fantasies. Adult coaching helps children in this age group to extend their pretend
play. Their dexterity and fine motor skills are moderately developed to the point where they can
handle adult-size snaps, buttons, buckles, hooks, and lacing challenges better. Bows are a more
difficult, although acceptable challenge.
Children in this age group can copy longer, sequential patterns and create simple multiple-order
patterns when using smaller beads for stringing. They enjoy simple weaving and sewing kits,
sewing cards, and looper looms, and they start to master simple bows by the time they reach 6
years of age. The dress-up materials that interest them to the greatest degree are based on themes
from various experiences and media (e.g., television, videos, computer games, movies, and
books), including doctor, house/family, school, police, military, fire fighters, dinosaurs, pets, and
spaceships.
Pretend & Role Play: Dress-Up Materials
113
6 Through 8 Years
The surrounding media culture, the immediate community, and their school, peers, and
experiences have a significant impact on school-age children. These play a larger role in the
fantasy themes and dress-up materials that appeal to their interests and impact their choices.
Children 6, 7, and 8 years old display a deeper interest in themes that promote chase games (e.g.,
cops and robbers and the military), rough and tumble play (e.g., wrestling and king-of-the-
mountain), movie reenactments, and comic book characters. Appealing costumes, accessories,
and kits are more realistic looking in size, detail, and function, and may include small beads for
stringing jewelry, hand looms, hand sewing to make clothes for dolls and puppets, spool knitting,
braiding, and simple needlepoint. Children in this age group have the fine motor dexterity to tie
multiple knots, like what would be needed for macramé, braiding, and knitting. They can work a
basic loom, twist plastic strands, string small beads, and use fragile art media, like glass and
pottery beads or shrinkable colored plastic, to make their own accessories (e.g., friendship
bracelets, necklaces, and pins) and costumes, and enjoy doing so. Toward the end of this age
range, children prefer semi-structured group drama performances or staged plays. Typical
themes include major historical events, fairy tales, adventures in space and elsewhere, cops and
robbers, battles of all kinds, ballet, circus, school, house and fire fighter, involving various
accessories and kits like jewelry, wigs, make-up, hair, and disguise kits, and manicure sets. By 9
years of age, children use unfinished materials, accessories, and kits to customize and design
their own outfits, costumes, and disguises.
9 Through 12 Years
Although dramatic play for 9- through 12-year olds employs themes from the early school-age
years to a lesser and lesser degree with age, such play becomes highly structured and centers on
broader historical themes like wars, major national or regional transitions, and scientific
advances, domestic themes, such as family and health issues, cleaning, cooking, and sewing, and
the accessories for activities like more complex hand looms, or sewing, knitting, embroidery,
needle point, plastic braiding, and leather kits. Children in this age group have a greater interest
in dramatic activities, sports and other competitive activities, and various professions. They have
also developed the ability to perform more difficult skills, like applying make-up or set
Pretend & Role Play: Dress-Up Materials
114
construction. Therefore, these older children start to prefer costumes and clothing that represent
real-life roles, such as hunter, ballerina, athlete, doctor, and soldier. They also enjoy the
accessories that bring these roles to life, like realistic wigs, guns, specialized shoes, sports
equipment, unfinished materials, and relevant decorations. Children in this age group place a
greater and greater premium on authenticity with all costumes, accessories, and kits that closely
resemble adult versions.
Pretend & Role Play: Dress-Up Materials
115
116
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: DRESS-UP MATERIALS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Thick, round edges
Non-elaborate shapes for jewelry
Sleeveless, slip-on costume design
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Wood or plastic beads
-------------------------------------------------
Easy on & off hook-and-loop fasteners
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Large buttons, buckles & hooks for
costumes
Motor Skills Required*
Very little dexterity or fine motor control
Low degree of dexterity & fine motor
control
Able to string large beads & holes with
pincer grasp
Able to guide arms & legs through large
openings
Low to moderate degree of dexterity &
fine motor control
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Rich, vibrant colors
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Soft textures
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail*
Low degree of realistic detail
117
Licensed theme*
Licensed costumes & accessories
begin to appeal
Stronger connection with licensed
costumes & accessories
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Imitative
Very simple pretend & symbolic
thinking
Babbles, some words
Exploring
Feeling textures
Mouths objects most of the time
-------------------------------------------------
Simple pretend & symbolic connections
Words & short phrases
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Mouths objects much of the time
-------------------------------------------------
More, increasingly complex symbolic
transformations
Increase in vocabulary
Values independent functioning
Some mouthing of objects
Examples of Products
Very simple costumes
Necklaces, bracelets with low tension
elastic, no rings/earrings
Hair accessories (scarves, clips)
Braided or plastic “string”
Beads (up to 10)
Simple costumes
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Shoes, hats, snap-on ties
Beads (up to 20)
Lacing cubes or boards with thick blunt
spindles
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Handheld mirrors with fantasy theme
Simple wigs
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Dresses, hats, gloves, shoes, snap-on
ties
Beads (up to 20)
Simple dress-me dolls
Frames & cubes for buttoning,
snapping, lacing, hooking, &
buckling
Lacing cards & shoes
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
118
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: DRESS-UP MATERIALS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Smaller beads (around 0.5
inch)
Necklaces with large hooks
or easy-to-separate
fasteners
Beads around 0.25 inch
-----------------------------------
Realistic size & function of
dress-up materials
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Smaller easy on & off hook-
and-loop or touch
fasteners
Mid-size buttons, buckles &
hooks
Simple, large snaps
-----------------------------------
Adult-size buttons, snaps,
lacing, buckles & hooks
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Pottery & glass beads
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Moderate degree of dexterity
& fine motor control
Simple lacing
Independent dressing with
simple costumes
Snapping, buttoning,
buckling, hooking
-----------------------------------
Basic lacing & tying
challenges
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Moderate to high degree of
dexterity (can make
clothes for dolls &
puppets with sewing
needle)
Making simple dress-up
materials
Putting on basic adult-type
costumes
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Making somewhat elaborate
costumes
Putting on somewhat
elaborate costumes
Precise application of make-
up
Color/Contrast
Rich, primary colors & bright
pastel colors
-----------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Soft textures (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail*
Moderate level of realistic
detail
Moderate to high level of
realistic detail
High level of realistic detail
Very high level of realistic
detail
Premium on authenticity
Licensed theme*
More appeal of licensed
costumes
Keen interest in licensed
costumes
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Classic
119
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Much greater emphasis on
pretend
Low to medium problem-
solving abilities
Starts to engage in simple
sequential patterns like
red & blue
More, sophisticated pretend
play
More expansive
conceptualizations of
symbolic meanings
Moderate problem-solving
abilities
Can copy more complex
orders in bead stringing
Able to create simple
multiple-order
sequences
More structured, goal-
oriented dramatic role-
play
Moderate to high problem-
solving abilities
Moderate to high degree of
customized dress-up
Highly structured, goal-
oriented dramatic role-
play
High degree of problem-
solving abilities
High degree of customized
dress-up
Examples of Products
Low to moderately complex
costumes
All types of jewelry
Simple wigs (cont’d)
Hair accessories (scarves,
clips)
Dresses, hats, gloves, shoes,
snap-on ties (cont’d)
Small beads
Dress-me dolls (cont’d)
Frames & cubes for
buttoning, snapping,
lacing, hooking, &
buckling (cont’d)
Lacing cards & shoes
(cont’d)
Moderately complex
costumes
Low to moderately complex
kits (manicure, make-up,
jewelry, braiding,
disguises)
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Simple bows
-----------------------------------
Looper looms
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Simple sewing kits
-----------------------------------
Unfinished materials for
making costumes
-----------------------------------
More realistic wigs
Complex hair accessories
More complex bows
-----------------------------------
Looper & hand looms
Beads of all sizes
Spool knitting
Simple needlepoint
-----------------------------------
Adult-like jewelry, manicure,
make-up, ties, disguises,
hair, sewing, braiding,
knitting, needle point,
embroidery
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
More complex hand looms
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Leather & plastic braiding
Decorative guns &
equipment
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
120
Pretend & Role Play
121
SMALL VEHICLE TOYS
Children up through 18 months, particularly those younger than 1 year, use small vehicle toys,
mostly for exploration and simple imitation purposes, rather than for representational purposes.
Therefore, simple vehicle-like toys appropriate for children under 12 months of age are discussed
within Exploratory and Practice Play: Push & Pull Toys. After 18 months, children start to use
small vehicles more for pretend play. Three- and 4-year-olds pretend the most with small
vehicles as they construct dramatic scenes and stories. Children are not meant to ride on the
vehicles in this subcategory; for ride-on vehicles, please see Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor
Play: Ride-On Toys.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of small vehicle toys:
• Size of Parts
• Level of Realistic Detail
• Motor Skills Required
• Licensed theme
• Color/Contrast
• Cause & Effect
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority, because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of small vehicle toys are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with
these toys.
12 Through 18 Months
Because they have been closely observing adults and older peers at home and see small vehicles
being used on TV and in other media, these children start actively engaging in imitative play
with substitutes of these objects. As children progress through this period, they are establishing
object permanence, simplistic symbolic thinking, and can babble with some words and
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
122
understand many more words. Young children can be helped to develop their ability to imitate
with small vehicles by watching adults or older peers, although such modeling is not necessary
for children in this age group to play with these vehicles. Examples of small vehicle toys for this
age group include small boats for the bathtub, simple cars, motorcycles, trucks, trains without
tracks, and flying machines. Plastic, hard rubber, or lightweight wood are suitable materials for
these toys.
Children in this age group are mostly attracted to rich, vibrant colors with simple details that may
be realistic or fantasy-oriented in nature. Children in this age group enjoy small vehicle toys that
are simple, easy to recognize, and of one-piece construction, although the wheels may spin.
Because children in this age group tend to mouth objects and demonstrate a low degree of fine
motor dexterity and control, appropriate small vehicles do not have removable or loose parts.
Young children also enjoy small vehicle toys with a low degree of cause and effect, such as
vehicles on wheels that spin (see also Exploratory and Practice Play: Push & Pull Toys) or
vehicles with push buttons that produce simple sounds, lights, and actions. Children in this age
group can use small vehicle toys that are activated by shaking or that move after inserting a
driver figure into a seat. Small vehicle toys for children in this age group are large enough for
easy grasping and pushing (about 4 to 8 inches in size), and children find it easier to use these
toys if they have at least one section that fits a small pincer or full hand grip (about ¼ to ½ inch).
This, however, is not necessary. If the toy is to be picked up during use, children in this age
group will find it easier to manipulate if it weighs no more than 3 ounces. Suitable toys have
thick, rounded edges and are sturdy enough so the toy will not break or pull apart.
Simple trains, constructed of molded plastic or wood, and capable of being rolled on either fixed
or easy turning wheels, start to appeal to this age group. Because children in this age group have
great difficulty negotiating tracks or manipulating and maintaining train or track connections,
trains with tracks or small coupling mechanisms are generally not appropriate. As children
approach 18 months, they can use simple coupling devices like large hooks or magnets.
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
123
19 Through 23 Months
Around 19 months of age, children begin very simple pretend play with small vehicle toys,
mostly imitating domestic and predominant media themes, such as the family car, or popular
cartoons that have vehicles. Children in this age group enjoy small vehicle toys that have a low-
to-moderate level of cause-and-effect functionality, like pushing buttons to produce sounds,
lights, or movements, or pulling on a cord. Children at this age enjoy small vehicles that are
battery operated and can perform simple tricks (e.g., tumbling, rotating, and bump-and-go
motions when a button is pressed on them). At any younger age, children may not have the
cognitive skills to move out of the way to allow the vehicle to pass and complete its action. They
enjoy relatively large, simple, workable parts—like hinged doors or hoods, dumpers, hoses, sails,
rudders, ladders, and propellers—as long as they require only a low degree of fine motor
dexterity and control and are easily manipulated with a pincer grasp. As steadier walking
develops, they enjoy pulling small vehicles on a cord (see Exploratory and Practice Play: Push
& Pull Toys). They find appealing small vehicles that have a low-to-moderate level of realistic
detail and rich vibrant colors. Suitable small vehicle toys for these children may include boats for
the bathtub, cars, motorcycles, fantasy vehicles, trucks, trains, and flying machines. On average,
wind-up vehicles are not appropriate for these children.
These children begin simpler pretend play with small vehicle toys as they approach 2 years.
Vehicles should be washable or easily cleaned, and should be large enough for easy grasping,
gripping, or pushing. Vehicles that are 6 to 12 inches are appropriate, as well as those that fit a
pincer or full hand grip. These toys typically weigh no more than 4 ounces if they are expected to
be picked up during use. For safety reasons, these toys should be of sturdy construction so that
they do not break or pull apart, and have thick, rounded edges.
Boats, cars, motorcycles, fantasy vehicles, and trucks may have slightly more detail, although
this is not necessary to appeal to this age group. Trains appeal, but this age group can handle
greater challenges. As they approach 2 years, children in this age group are more adept at
pushing buttons, manipulating parts, and operating simple remote devices. As with trains for
younger children, tracks are not appropriate, but children in this age group do enjoy manipulating
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
124
and maintaining simple coupling mechanisms, such as magnetic or large-hook couplings. Two-
to four-car trains appeal to this age group.
2 Years
Children at age 2 start to pretend more often given their increased recognition of the symbolic
connections between toys and the real world. Such pretend play also occurs in more complex
ways than is the case with younger children. They are attracted to small vehicle toys that have a
low-to-moderate level of cause-and-effect functionality, as when their pushing produces sound,
lights, or movement; when they pull vehicles on a cord; or when they use an intuitive remote
control with a couple large push buttons, or turn a steering wheel to produce basic actions. At
this age, children have the fine and gross motor skills to hold a remote control and press buttons
simultaneously; any younger age child may have difficulty combining these two actions. For
more pretend opportunities, children in this age group enjoy several movable parts, like doors,
hoods, dumpers, hoses, sails, rudders, propellers, and simple levers that are large and simple for
easy pincer grasp. They enjoy small vehicles with low-to-moderately realistic detail and rich
vibrant colors or bright pastels. They also enjoy vehicles that require a low-to-moderate degree
of fine motor dexterity and control, including boats in the bathtub, cars, motorcycles, trucks,
trains, fantasy vehicles, and flying machines. Children in this age group can soon use simple,
one- or two-turn, wind-up mechanisms of low tension with a progressively higher rate of success
as they progress towards 3 years of age.
Small vehicle toys may be smaller (2 to 4 inches), or larger (10 to 18 inches) for pushing
purposes. As they approach 30 months of age, they are increasingly aware of vehicles featuring
licensed characters, which starts to play a role in their preferences and ultimate enjoyment of
these toys. They also start to enjoy small vehicles that incorporate the most basic educational
purposes, such as a few voice-activated numbers and letters in tandem with relevant
configurations. Children in this age group may find it difficult to manipulate toys that are not
easily grasped or that weigh more than 4 to 6 ounces, if designed to be picked up during use (for
example, an airplane). Appropriate toys are constructed to prevent them from breaking or pulling
apart, and are typically made with thick, rounded edges. Washable or easy-to-clean toys are
desirable.
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
125
Children in this age group enjoy large trucks with relatively large, simple working parts, handles,
and wheels, because they can be used easily for more purposeful activities like carrying,
dumping, or rescuing. Due to the larger size of these trucks, hard plastic is often preferred over
metal to keep the toys from getting too heavy. The same trains that are appropriate for younger
children are also appropriate here, but their cars can be smaller, and moving wheels are much
more appealing than fixed ones. As they approach 3 years, children in this age group enjoy
connecting simple hooking, snapping, or interlacing tracks with ample width for error as they
push and pull a compatible car, train, or other vehicle along, or watch it go down a slope. They
also enjoy manipulating, and are more successful at connecting and maintaining, simple coupling
mechanisms with multiple cars that easily fasten and detach.
3 Years
Three-year-olds display a moderate degree of dexterity and fine motor control, and low-to-
moderately complex, cause-and-effect functionality in their pretend play. They enjoy small
vehicles that produce sounds or talking, lights, or movement by pushing buttons on the toy or on
a remote control to produce basic actions. Small vehicle toys are attractive to this age because
they are used increasingly in cooperative contexts that have a low-to moderate-level of social
interactions, especially as they approach age 4. Children in this age group are attracted to both
smaller (1 to 8 inches) and larger (12 to 24 inches) vehicles of more complexity and detail. They
prefer vehicles in basic coordinated sets (e.g., miniature die-cast cars and vehicles approximately
1:60 to 1:64 scale) and those with relevant figures and accessories.
Boats, cars, motorcycles, fantasy vehicles, trucks, and flying machines begin to appeal to 3-year-
olds when they are more detailed, so they are attracted to materials like die-cast metal or plastics
that capture more detail. They begin to prefer a moderate level of realistic detail like proportional
design, loose parts, functionality, decorations, and printed words. They enjoy rich vibrant colors
and bright pastel colors. They are attracted to simple remote devices that have easy to manipulate
buttons, joysticks, or handheld controllers. Children in this age group also like to use pull-back-
and-release mechanisms or simple, multiple-turn winding mechanisms that have a large key and
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
126
low tension. They enjoy pretending with numerous movable parts, like doors, hoods, dumpers,
hoses, sails, rudders, propellers, simple levers, with large workable parts for easy pincer grasp.
Small vehicles that feature licensed characters popularized by various media appeal to children
in this age group. If the toy is designed to be picked up during use, lightweight vehicles (no more
than 6 to 8 ounces) are more appropriate.
Preferred trains have multiple cars that fasten and detach. As with the previous age group, large
simple tracks with easy connections appeal to children in this age group because they derive a
sense of completion and accomplishment when putting objects together. These children are
capable of aligning a die-cast car onto a compatible track, pulling on a lever to move the car up a
hill, and watching it travel down a slope at a high rate of speed. Track sets with garages, lifts,
launchers, ramps, or manual elevators that are compatible with die cast cars are appropriate.
4 Through 5 Years
Children in this age group immensely enjoy small vehicle toys because they can incorporate
them into their moderately to highly complex pretend play. More complex small vehicles
promote more complex and longer periods of pretend play. Because they develop richer
symbolic meanings than 3-year olds and have moderate problem-solving abilities, 4- and 5-year
olds use small vehicle toys as aids or pivots for enacting diverse, often extended stories with a
friend or group.
Children in this age group enjoy rich, vibrant colors and more realistic colors, as well as a
moderate-to-high level of realistic detail, including proportional design, movable parts,
functionality, and more detailed decorations or wording. Children ages 4-5 will spend more time
with cars that are highly detailed in their illustration than with those that are not. Boats, cars,
motorcycles, fantasy vehicles, and trucks are especially appealing to this age group when they
have enough detail to be identified by make or model. They are attracted to materials like die-
cast metal or plastics that can capture more detail. They enjoy low-to-moderately complex cause-
and-effect functionality, such as pull-back-and-release mechanisms, launchers, and toys with
numerous loose parts that they can manipulate to produce moderately complex actions. Small or
large workable parts, like doors, hoods, dumpers, hoses, sails, rudders, propellers, and levers,
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
127
also appeal to this age group. They enjoy playing with trucks that have large parts, such as
cranks and levers, especially on earth-moving trucks and road machinery. They enjoy medium-
to-small-size keys on low-to-medium tension wind-up toys. They are attracted to familiar small
vehicles that feature licensed characters popularized by various media, and those that come with
removable characters. This is also the age at which children begin to develop an interest in
collectible vehicles. Appropriate small vehicles that are expected to be picked up during use,
generally weigh no more than 10 ounces. Children in this age group prefer both smaller (1 to 12
inches) and larger (24 to 36 inches) vehicles, as well as numerous loose parts of all sizes.
More detailed and realistic trains are preferred. These trains have multiple cars that fasten and
detach, and large tracks with easy-to-hook-up, snap-on, or lock-type connections. They enjoy
playing with heavier trains that they can readily maneuver, or operating simple electric trains
with an adult. Children in this age also can manage track sets with dozens of interchangeable
pieces that can be used to perform stunts or race two or more die-cast cars.
6 Through 8 Years
These school-age children are attracted to small vehicles that are highly realistic, minutely
detailed, highly functional, and unique in shape, parts, and color. They also enjoy small vehicle
toys with numerous accessories and that are highly complex in cause-and-effect functionality,
such as push buttons, joysticks, and handheld controllers that produce multiple sounds, lights, or
actions. At this age, children have the cognitive skills to become creative in their play with these
types of vehicles and may develop unique paths in a room for the vehicle to drive—for example,
navigating a remote-controlled vehicle underneath a table and behind a couch is a challenging,
yet exciting task. They prefer more complex, highly detailed flying machines that may have a
small key for medium-tension wind ups. They have a keen interest in those small vehicles with
age-appropriate licenses popularized by various media, including a somewhat sophisticated
interest in collectibles as they approach the end of this period. Their moderate degree of strength
and dexterity let them use vehicles weighing about 12 ounces, if the vehicles are designed to be
picked up during use.
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
128
Children in this age group prefer highly elaborate small- or medium-sized cars and motorcycles
of all sizes with moderately complex configurations for basic tracks or electric tracks for racing.
At this age, vehicle tracks that can quickly launch cars using cranking mechanisms are especially
appealing. At this age, children are able to use their gross motor skill strength to operate the
crank. Interest in operating trucks declines as racing and collecting interests become paramount
for this age group. During this period, children enjoy operating electric trains with multiple cars
that have couplings of moderate complexity to fasten and detach, and with smaller tracks that use
a variety of straightforward connections that children in this age group can easily set up on their
own.
9 Through 12 Years
Older school-age children gradually focus on collecting sets of small vehicle toys that are
elaborately detailed, although not necessarily realistic. Their small vehicles may be highly
functional and complex, often resembling authentic adult versions. They are attracted to unique
or licensed vehicles that are popularized by various media. They enjoy flying machines with
small key, high-tension wind ups, or that are air-pressure propelled (see also Sports,
Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment). They can handle all sizes of vehicles,
and those that are expected to be picked up during use might weigh up to 1 pound. Their interest
in racing and collecting cars, motorcycles, and trucks can wax or wane during this period, while
their interest in complex, elaborately detailed trains and track configurations is mostly
maintained and deepened.
Pretend & Role Play: Small Vehicle Toys
129
130
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: SMALL VEHICLE TOYS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Large for easy grasping, gripping, or
pushing
4-8 inches in length & fits pincer or full
hand grip
May have section(s) 0.25 to 0.5 inch thick
Weight no more than 3 oz if designed to
be picked up during use
Large simple workable parts
6-12 inches in length & fits pincer or full
hand grip
--------------------------------------------------
Weight no more than 4 oz if designed to
be picked up during use
--------------------------------------------------
Smaller (2-3 inches), or larger (12-18
inches) for pushing purposes
May have section(s) 0.5 inch thick
Weight no more than 4-6 oz if designed to
be picked up during use
Shape of Parts
No removable or loose parts
Thick, rounded edges
One-piece construction (but wheels may
spin)
Sturdy
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
1 or 2 train cars
2-4 train cars
1-3 loose/movable parts
2-6 train cars
1-8 loose/movable parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Large, simple hooks or magnetic coupling
devices for trains
--------------------------------------------------
Large & simple hooking, snapping or
interlacing tracks that have ample
width for given vehicle
Materials
Plastic, hard rubber, or light wood
Washable or easily cleaned
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Low degree of fine motor dexterity &
control
--------------------------------------------------
Start to fasten & detach simple coupling
mechanisms (magnetic or large-hook)
Low to moderate degree of fine motor
dexterity & control
Able to use simple remote controls &
devices
--------------------------------------------------
One- or two-turn wind-up mechanisms of
low tension
Color/Contrast*
Rich, vibrant colors
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
Pays close attention to simple cause-and-
effect functionality (pushing produces
sound, lights or action)
Pushing produces sound, lights,
movement, &/or voice activation
Pulling on cord produces effect(s)
Pushing buttons on simple remote control
produces simple effect(s)
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
Sound or lights
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
131
Level of Realism/Detail*
Simple realistic detail or fantasy details
Some recognizable details
Low level of realistic detail
Low to moderate level of realistic detail
(doors, hoods, dumpers, hoses, sails,
rudders, propellers, simple levers)
Licensed theme*
Starts to recognize licensed vehicles
Readily recognizes several licensed
vehicles
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Able to use simple remote controls &
devices (controlled by rattles or large
buttons)
------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Imitative play
Observe adults & older peers, or watch TV
& other media
Established sense for object permanence
Simplistic symbolic thinking
Babbles with some spoken words & word
comprehension
Often helped by adults or older peers
through modeling toy usage
Mouthing objects
More imitative of domestic & media-based
themes
Simple pretend with more awareness of
symbolic connections
Some spoken words & phrases, & word
comprehension
--------------------------------------------------
Mouth objects to lesser degree
Enjoys low to moderate level of cause-
and-effect functionality
--------------------------------------------------
More, increasingly complex pretend
Increased recognition of symbolic
connections
Some spoken words & phrases, simple
sentences, & word comprehension
--------------------------------------------------
Some mouthing of objects
--------------------------------------------------
Examples of Products
Boats (mostly for bath)
Push cars, motorcycles, & trucks
Simple trains without tracks
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------
Flying machines (no wind ups)
Simple remote-control vehicles
--------------------------------------------------
Large trucks
--------------------------------------------------
Trains with 2-6 cars that fasten & detach
Flying machines with simple wind ups
--------------------------------------------------
Fantasy vehicles with simple wind ups
Tracks that allow child to watch cars go
down a slope
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
132
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: SMALL VEHICLE TOYS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Smaller working parts
Small (1-8 in.) or large (12-24
in.) for pushing
No more than 6-8 oz. if designed
to be picked up during use
Both small & large working parts
Small (1-12 in.) or large (24-36
in.)
No more than 10 oz. if designed
to be picked up during use
-----------------------------------
All sizes
No more than 12 oz. if designed
to be picked up and used
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
No more than 1 lb if designed to
be picked up during use
Shape of Parts
Unique shapes & part
-----------------------------------
Number of Parts
Multiple train cars
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Large & simple hooking,
snapping, or interlacing
tracks that have ample
width for given vehicle
(cont’d)
Large tracks with easy to hook-
up, snap-on, or lock-type
connections
Smaller tracks with a variety of
straightforward connections
Complex track connections &
configurations
Materials
Die-cast metal or plastics that
capture more detail
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Moderate degree of fine motor
dexterity & control
More adept at using buttons &
joy sticks
More adept at using simple
couplings
Simple multiple-turn winders with
large key & low tension
Able to manipulate small pieces
effectively
Begins to master most remote
devices
Able to use more complex
couplings
Medium to small keys on low to
medium tension wind ups
Moderate to high degree of
dexterity, & fine motor skills
Masters most remote devices
Couplings of moderate
complexity to fasten &
detach
Small key for medium tension
wind-ups
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Small key, high tension wind ups
Color/Contrast*
Rich, vibrant colors (cont’d)
Bright pastel & realistic colors
-----------------------------------
Standard & unique colors
-----------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Pushing buttons on simple
remote control produces
more complex effects
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail*
Moderate level of realistic detail
Moderate to high level of realistic
detail as in proportional
design, functionality, loose
parts, printed words, &
more detailed decorations
Highly realistic, minutely detailed
-----------------------------------
Elaborate & authentic
133
Licensed theme*
Licensed vehicles & characters,
as popularized by various
media, begin to appeal
more
-----------------------------------
Keen interest in licensed
vehicles.
-----------------------------------
Classic
Beginning interest in collecting
classic vehicles
Somewhat sophisticated interest
in classic vehicles near the
end of this period
Robotic/Smart Features
More adept at using buttons &
joy sticks
Begins to master most remote
devices
Masters most remote devices
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Low to moderately complex
pretend play
Moderately adept at making
symbolic connections
Low to moderate level of social
& cooperative friend or
group interactions
Moderately to highly complex
pretend play; longer periods
of pretend play
Develops richer symbolic
meanings
Object substitution
Extensive social & cooperative
friend or group interactions.
Moderate problem-solving
abilities
More structured, goal-oriented
dramatic role-play
Readily transform symbolic
meanings
Uses & adapts themes from
experience at home,
school, & various media
(television, videos, movies,
books, etc.)
Moderate to high problem-
solving abilities
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Examples of Products
Large trucks (cont’d)
Vehicles with simple tracks &
launchers
Miniature die-cast cars
Trains with multiple cars
Trains with simple, easily
connecting tracks
Flying machines with simple
wind ups (cont’d)
Remote-control vehicles
Fantasy vehicles with simple
wind ups (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Vehicles with simple to
moderately complex tracks
-----------------------------------
Trains with multiple cars that
fasten & detach
-----------------------------------
Flying machines with large- to
medium-size key, low-
tension wind ups
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Cars, motorcycles, & trucks with
moderately complex
standard or electric tracks
for racing
Electric trains with multiple cars
that fasten & detach
Trains with small tracks that are
moderately easy to connect
Flying machines with small key,
medium-tension wind ups
-----------------------------------
Vehicle tracks that can quickly
launch cars using cranking
mechanisms
Cars, motorcycles, trucks with
highly complex standard or
electric tracks for racing
-----------------------------------
Trains with small tracks that are
somewhat difficult to
connect
Flying machines with small key,
high-tension wind-ups or
air-pressure propelled
-----------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
134
Pretend & Role Play
135
TOOLS & PROPS
Tools and props for pretend and role-play start to appeal to children about 12 months old. This is
about the time when they figure out that many objects can be used to imitate adults and older
peers. Around 19 months, tools and props will help them to role-play domestic themes. By age 3,
children are performing simple dramatic scenes and stories. Many of the simpler toys in this
subcategory may also be found in the Exploratory and Practice Play category, where children of
younger ages use such toys.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of tools and props:
• Cause & Effect
• Size of Parts
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Color/Contrast
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of tools and props are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with these
toys.
12 Through 18 Months
Although young children do not make clear symbolic connections until they are closer to 18
months, children about 12 months of age will start to actively engage in imitative play with
simple and chunky-shaped substitutes of objects they see adults and older peers using. For
example, regardless of whether realistic detail is present, young children hold toy telephones
(wired and cellular) to their ear because they often see their elders do so. Soon they begin to
imitate a phone conversation with babbling and later with words. Children will spend a fair
amount of their time repeatedly pressing buttons on a simple toy telephone (including those with
fake touchscreen square “app” buttons), camera, remote, or other interactive props, such as a
Pretend & Role Play: Tools & Props
136
teapot, or small vacuum, to hear the electronic sounds it produces. They like the cause-and-effect
stimuli from pushing buttons and making sounds (see also Exploratory and Practice Play).
An imitative response is starting to emerge with other tools and props that they have seen adults
perform around the house (e.g., drinking, talking on the phone). They can use sets with up to six
separate parts. Rounded toys that are constructed from cleanable, thick, and sturdy materials and
structure—so children cannot break or pull them apart—are appropriate. They also prefer toys
with rich, vibrant colors. These toys are easier to use if they fit the child’s small opposable grip
or full hand grip (handles about ½-inch thick) and weigh no more than 3 ounces if expected to be
picked up by the child during play. Other examples of toys appropriate for 12- through 18-month
olds, in roughly the same order as they would be purchased as the child matures through this
period, include rakes, shovels and trowels, and buckets.
19 Through 23 Months
Children 19 through 23 months old are becoming more aware that tools and props represent
other objects. A symbolic response may be seen with tools and props, such as kitchen toys and
dishes, a teapot with cups and saucers, toy house-cleaning tools (e.g., brooms, mops, dustpans,
and carpet sweepers), and lawnmower-like toys. Adults may encourage these actions to stimulate
pretend play. Compared to younger children, children in this age group are attracted to slightly
more complex (i.e., less chunky and more realistic) tools and props, including cash registers,
medical kits, low-power water guns, along with toy cameras and telephones (wired phones,
cellular phones, and pagers). They enjoy cellular phones that are modeled after those with
traditional buttons and will continue to use those with fake touchscreen square “app” buttons.
These children can use toy cameras during pretend-play episodes (e.g., holding up to eye and
pretending to take a picture).
Children in this age group are just learning to push wheeled tools and props, such as a toy
vacuum, while standing. Care should be taken to ensure that these props are lightweight, and in
the case of lawnmowers and vacuums, easy to balance. Children in this age group begin to
develop a greater interest in toy shovels and trowels, rakes, wheelbarrows (see also Exploratory
and Practice Play: Push & Pull Toys), and buckets for sand and water play.
Pretend & Role Play: Tools & Props
137
They can use sets with up to 10 separate parts, and enjoy toys with low-to-moderate, cause-and-
effect features, such as toys when pushed produce sounds, lights, or other actions. Appropriate
tools and props have a low level of realistic detail, rich, vibrant colors, thick and rounded edges,
and require only a low degree of fine motor dexterity and control.
2 Years
Two-year-olds start to pretend more often because they increasingly recognize the symbolic
connections between role-play and the real world. This pretend play is more frequent and occurs
in more complex ways than with younger children. Children in this age group are attracted to the
same tools and props as 19-23-month olds, but they should have a level of cause and effect that
responds to the child’s actions in a simple way that is conducive to their limited motor and
cognitive skills (i.e., button pressing continues to be appropriate at this age), be a bit more
realistic (still somewhat cartoonish instead of very realistic) in detail, have rich, vibrant colors,
and require a moderate degree of fine motor dexterity and control. Children in this age group can
also readily incorporate into their pretend play, a simple light-up wand that is short and
lightweight, as well as all tools and props for younger children. Tools and props that come in sets
and tend to have no more than 10 pieces are appropriate.
As children grow closer to 3 years, they get better at substituting less realistic items for tools and
props, and they can handle slightly bigger and heavier (8 ounces or ½ pound) tools and props.
Suitable toys for older children are made of thick, sturdy, cleanable, rounded material and
structure so children cannot break or pull them apart.
3 Years
Three-year-olds have a moderate degree of dexterity, fine motor control, and ability to pretend.
They enjoy using moderately to highly detailed, realistic looking, and slightly fragile tools.
Lightweight (no more than 8 ounces) props permit easier manipulations. Children in this age
group are attracted to props that exhibit a cause-and-effect stimulus to help support various
simple dramatic themes. Children can readily imitate actions that they have seen adults perform
when trying to encourage pretend play, such as pushing a toy vacuum with realistic features
Pretend & Role Play: Tools & Props
138
(e.g., hose attachments, weak suction, visualizing or picking up pretend dirt particles) or waving
around a wand/sword, or spinning novelty toy with flashing lights and music. Sets generally have
no more than 10 pieces. Children in this age group also begin to have more interest in realistic
colors like black, white, beige, and gray.
They retain an interest in toy tools with a moderate-to-high level of realistic detail, including
shovels, trowels, rakes, buckets for sand and water play, vacuums, lawnmowers, kitchen toys and
dishes, tea sets, cleaning tools (e.g., brooms, mops, dustpans, and carpet sweepers), cash registers
and play money, medical kits, play telephones and mobile communication devices, toy guns,
holsters, helmets, low-power water guns, and small bow and arrow sets with suction-cup-tipped
ends. In this age group, children can also begin to use play food appropriately (e.g., mimic
eating and imitate chewing, but not actually trying to bite, suck, or mouth the play food—a
common occurrence at younger ages). Children now also have the fine motor skills needed to put
together play food with multiple pieces and parts (e.g., putting together a sandwich using a kit
that has a small piece of hook and loop to connect the pieces together), as well as incorporate a
tea set (teapot and sugar bowl with lids, creamer, cups and saucers) into a make-believe tea party
(e.g., tilts handle to simulate pouring, picks up cup by handle, replaces lid). Such toys are
increasingly used in cooperative contexts, especially as they get closer to 4 years old. Children in
this age group, because of their newly acquired level of speech and their desire to be more social
and cooperative, are very attracted to telephones and mobile communication devices that have
bright colors with moderately realistic details and somewhat complex functionality. For example,
children in this age group enjoy phones with buttons that, when pressed, ask questions or make
comments with basic language that they can understand.
4 Through 5 Years
Children in this age group also enjoy moderately to highly detailed, realistic tools and props to
incorporate into their pretend play. Because they develop richer symbolic meanings and have
moderate problem-solving abilities, 4- and 5-year-olds use tools and props to initiate and support
role-play characters and to enact diverse, often extended stories. Their moderate degree of
dexterity, strength, and gross motor skills allow them to begin handling lightweight (up to about
10 ounces), realistic, working hammers and similar tools for practicing construction skills.
Pretend & Role Play: Tools & Props
139
The tools and props that interest children in this age group most are based on themes from
various experiences at home, school, and through the media (television, videos, computer games,
movies, and books). These include props like cash registers and play money, medical kits,
kitchen/cooking sets, cameras, telephones, mobile communication devices, toy guns, holsters,
helmets, low-power water guns that have a moderate degree of realistic detail, and small bow
and arrow sets whose arrows are tipped with suction-cups. Sets of tools and props typically have
no more than 10 pieces.
Tools and props designed for more complex cause and effect appear to promote more complex
and longer periods of pretend play. For example, 4- and 5-year olds seek realistic detail and
prefer telephones and mobile communication devices with different buttons that produce various
realistic functions. For example, the phone may beep and have a dial tone, voice response, or text
messaging. Children in this age group do not prefer fantasy functions, like songs that play, as
much as they did when they were younger. Cameras with a viewfinder function (such as a
kaleidoscope lens) can also be used at this age because children know to hold it to their eye, peek
through a viewfinder hole, and push down a pretend button. Looking through a viewfinder and
pointing out objects is appealing. At younger ages, children lack the cognitive skills to
understand which side of the camera is the proper side to look through.
6 Through 8 Years
Young school-age children produce fewer pretend episodes than pre-school children as they
delve into more structured games. Their pretend play becomes more dramatic with longer, more
complex structured scenes and plays. They are attracted to highly realistic, detailed tools and
props to incorporate into their dramatic play. Because they can readily transform symbolic
meanings and develop moderate-to-high problem-solving abilities as they mature through this
period, 6- through 8-year olds employ tools and props to initiate and support role-play characters
to enact diverse, often extended stories. Children in this age group rely almost totally on the
cause and effect that a given tool or prop produces. Thus, the appeal of such toys is primarily
based on their high degree of realistic detail and function, although the toys themselves are the
same as those listed for 3- to 5-year-olds.
Pretend & Role Play: Tools & Props
140
Their moderate-to-high degree of dexterity, strength, and gross motor skills allow them to handle
lightweight (up to about 12 ounces), realistic, working hammers and similar tools for
construction purposes. The tools and props that interest them most are based on themes from
various experiences at home, school, and through the media (television, videos, computer games,
movies, and books).
9 Through 12 Years
Older school-age children produce few pretend episodes. Their dramatic play is more complex
and structured than younger children; they are elaborately staged and of lengthy duration. The
tools and props that interest them to the greatest degree are based on themes from various
experiences at home, school, and through the media (television, videos, computer games,
movies, and books). They are attracted to highly functional, realistic, detailed tools and props to
incorporate into their dramatic play.
Because they can readily transform and manipulate symbolic meanings and develop advanced
problem-solving abilities as they mature through this period, 9- through 12-year olds use tools
and props to support both dramatic and constructive efforts. They rely less on the cause and
effect that a given tool or prop produces, and can mime without the tool or prop present. The
appeal of toy cash registers and play money, medical kits, kitchen/cooking sets, telephones and
mobile communication devices, guns, holsters, helmets, medium-power water guns, and bow and
arrow sets with low tension and blunt safety tips, is based primarily on their high degree of
authenticity. Children in this age group are most interested in props with realistic detail and
function that closely resemble adult versions. Their relatively high degree of dexterity, strength,
and gross motor skills allow them to handle authentic-looking, working hammers and similar
tools (weighing up to 1 pound) for constructing a wide variety of projects.
Pretend & Role Play: Tools & Props
141
142
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: TOOLS & PROPS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Size fits pincer or full-hand grip
(handles 0.5 inch thick)
Weighs no more than 3 oz. if designed
to be picked up & used
-------------------------------------------------
Weighs no more than 4 oz. if designed
to be picked up & used
-------------------------------------------------
Weighs no more than 4-6 oz. if
designed to be picked up & used
Shape Parts
Sturdy (toy will not break or pull apart)
Thick, round edges (no sharp edges)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
1-6
2-10
-------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Loose
-------------------------------------------------
Tools that easily fit into “work” holster
Materials
Easily cleaned
Mostly plastic
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Low degree of fine motor dexterity &
control
-------------------------------------------------
Low to moderate dexterity & fine motor
control
Color/Contrast*
Rich, vibrant colors
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
Pays close attention to simple cause-
and-effect functionality (pushing
produces sound, lights or action),
or turning & pounding produce a
given result
Low to moderate level of cause-and-
effect functionality (pushing
produces sound, lights or action)
-------------------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail*
Low level of realistic detail
-------------------------------------------------
Low to moderate level of realistic detail
Licensed theme
143
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Imitative
Very simple pretend & symbolic thinking
Babbles, some words
Exploring
Mouthing objects
-------------------------------------------------
Simple pretend & symbolic connections
Sand & water play
-------------------------------------------------
Mouthing objects less
-------------------------------------------------
More, increasingly complex symbolic
transformations
-------------------------------------------------
Values independent functioning
Some mouthing
Examples of Products
Rakes, shovels, buckets & trowels
Small lawnmower-like toys
House cleaning tools
Kitchen/cooking & tea sets
Cell phones and mobile devices
modeled after those with traditional
buttons as well as those with fake
touchscreen ‘app’ buttons.
-------------------------------------------------
Vacuums & lawnmowers
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Telephones & mobile communication
devices (cell phones, pagers) with
pull out keyboards
Cash registers & money
Medical kits
Construction tools
Wheelbarrows
Wands
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
144
PRETEND & ROLE PLAY: TOOLS & PROPS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Toy & Parts*
Size fits pincer or full-hand
grip (handles 0.5 inch
thick) (cont’d)
Weighs no more than 6-8
ounces if designed to be
picked up & used
Size fits pincer or full-hand
grip (handles 0.75 inch
thick)
Weighs no more than 10
ounces if designed to be
picked up & used
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Size fits pincer or full-hand
grip (handles 0.75 to
1.25 inches thick)
Weighs no more than 1 lb if
designed to be picked
up & used
Shape of Parts
Will not easily break or pull
apart into small pieces
Somewhat thick, round
edges (no sharp edges)
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Number of Parts
2-10 (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Tools that easily fit into
“work” holster (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Materials
Easily cleaned (cont’d)
Mostly plastic (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Plastic, wooden, or metal
-----------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Moderate degree of fine
motor dexterity & control
Moderate degree of
dexterity, strength, &
gross motor skills
Moderate to high degree of
dexterity, strength, &
gross motor skills
High degree of dexterity,
strength, & gross motor
skills
Color/Contrast*
Rich, vibrant colors (cont’d)
Realistic (e.g., black, white,
beige, gray)
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
Moderate level of complexity
in cause-and-effect
functionality (pushing
produces sound, lights,
&/or action)
Moderate to high level of
complexity in cause-
and-effect functionality
High level of complexity in
cause-and-effect
functionality (pushing,
etc. produces
conversation, lights, &/or
action)
High level of complexity in
cause-and-effect
functionality
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail*
Moderate level of realistic
detail
Moderate to highly realistic
detail & function
Highly realistic detail &
function
Highly realistic details &
function resembling
authentic adult-versions
145
Licensed theme
Use themes from experience
at home, school, &
various media
(television, videos,
computer games,
movies, & books)
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Greater ability to pretend
More, increasingly complex
symbolic
transformations
Low to moderate problem-
solving abilities
Some partner or group
interactions
Develop richer symbolic
meanings
-----------------------------------
Moderate problem-solving
abilities
Extensive partner or group
interactions
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Moderate to high problem-
solving abilities
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Examples of Products
Rakes, shovels, buckets, &
trowels
Vacuums & lawnmowers
(cont’d)
House cleaning tools (cont’d)
Kitchen cooking props
(cont’d)
Telephones, cell phones,
pagers (cont’d)
Cash registers & money
(cont’d)
Medical kits (cont’d)
Construction tools (cont’d)
Toy guns, holsters, helmets,
& bow & arrow sets with
suction cups
Play food
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Light hammers
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Authentic, adult-like tools &
props
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
146
147
GAME & ACTIVITY PLAY
Children begin to enjoy certain types of puzzles around the age of 1 and games around the age of
2 when they start interacting with toys in more symbolic, logical ways. Game play takes off in
the elementary years, when games with rules dominate children’s play. Many games have
educational elements or cultural traditions, and these make them appealing to parents and
children.
Puzzles (p. 149)
• Cardboard puzzles
• Inset or fit-in puzzles
• Jigsaw puzzles
• Magnetic puzzles
• Three-dimensional puzzles
• Wooden puzzles
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games (p. 159)
• Activity games
• Backgammon
• Bingo games
• Card games
• Checkers
• Chess
• Chinese checkers
• Cooperative games
• Dice games
• Dominoes
• Fantasy adventure games
• Lotto games
• Matching games
• Mazes
• Pattern memory games
• Pick-up-sticks
• Table games
• Trivia games
• Word games
Game & Activity Play
148
Game & Activity Play
149
PUZZLES
Children enjoy puzzles of various types and styles. Puzzle play can be a solitary or group
activity. Puzzles are often seen as a solitary activity for young children; however, children are
also keen observers and interested in watching others finish puzzles. In general, puzzles are
appropriate for children starting at 12 months of age. Children younger than this can only use
pre-puzzles, which are meant for exploratory or practice play, rather than fitting pieces together.
Therefore, these are considered under Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, &
Manipulatives.
Puzzles require three major skills: fine motor skill to pick up and place the pieces, visual
discrimination to identify if the pieces fit, and some cognitive skill to organize and plan the
placing of pieces. As children develop, their fine motor skills increase, visual discrimination
improves, and cognitive abilities for trying different puzzle strategies improve. Children who
have more experience with puzzles can try more complex puzzles at an earlier age than children
who have little experience. Puzzles are important for the problem-solving process, because
children learn new strategies for completing puzzles as they try new puzzles. Research indicates
that working with puzzles and other closed-ended materials encourages persistence in children
because they are expecting a solution for fitting the pieces together.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of puzzles:
• Number of Parts
• Licensed theme
• Motor Skills Required
• Size of Parts
• Interlocking/Loose Parts
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
Game & Activity Play: Puzzles
150
description of what types of puzzles are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with
these products.
12 Through 18 Months
Children in this age group have very little interest in true puzzle-type activities. They can rarely
focus on the visual discrimination cues required to finish a puzzle. Puzzles with simple frames,
large pieces with easy to grip knobs, and large distinctly shaped wells that can accommodate a
few shapes, animals, or vehicles may be introduced to this age group, but these children are still
primarily focusing on sensory-motor experiences so they approach puzzles by grasping them,
mouthing them, banging them, and throwing the pieces.
19 Through 23 Months
Nineteen-month-old children are interested in putting together objects that fit. Children at this
age work these activities through trial and error, rather than use systematic strategies for
completing puzzles. However, as they approach 2 years of age, they are beginning to recognize
puzzle shapes and angles and are able to fit a square piece into a square well. These puzzles
have smooth surfaces, are washable, and are designed to be mouthed. Children 19 through 23
months old are getting better at the visual discrimination skills needed to work inset or other fit-
in type puzzles.
2 Years
Two-year olds have developed the fine motor skills and visual discrimination that are required to
do inset puzzles. The simplest puzzles have pieces that give obvious visual and physical cues that
a piece is in place (some puzzles may repeat the name of the object put in the well if it has
electronic features), and that have only one clear solution. Inset puzzles based on familiar
pictures and characters, as well as abstract shapes, should also be very simple. At younger ages,
children’s still developing cognitive skills may struggle with aligning the puzzle pieces correctly
into the wells. Cognitively, ordering by size is emerging at this age, and these children are better
at sorting and ordering pieces in a meaningful way. They continue to approach puzzles through
trial and error rather than systematic strategies. Because of this, puzzle pieces need to be close-
Game & Activity Play: Puzzles
151
ended so that the pieces fit in only one orientation. For example, frames that have individual
places for each piece can be used. Knobs on the puzzles allow the child to rotate the puzzle piece
in place without having to move their fingers. Appropriate inset puzzles have individual pieces
with distinctive shapes to emphasize visual cues. Puzzle pieces with smooth edges that are made
from wood or another lightweight material like plastic are suitable.
3 Years
Three-year-olds have developed greater fine motor skill and visual discrimination. Although they
have greater physical dexterity, they may still require knobs on the puzzle pieces and an inset
form or frame for placing them. If there are no knobs, a magnetic connection between the puzzle
piece and a magnetic wand to pick up the piece (e.g., a fishing puzzle) will suffice. At age 3,
children’s fine motor skills are developed enough to align the magnetic wand with the metal in
the puzzle piece to grab and maneuver the puzzle piece to where it belongs. Younger age groups
may have trouble aligning the two magnets with enough precision to complete the puzzle. Three-
year olds are interested in licensed characters based on popular age-appropriate cartoons or
television characters; so pictures of common objects and licensed characters are appropriate for
this age. Parents prefer characters that are non-violent or non-threatening (also known as “safe
harbor characters”), and these may come from popular cartoons or children’s books. Because of
their greater cognitive ability, 3-year olds can work puzzles with up to 26 pieces. Cardboard
puzzles may be introduced to children in this age group because they are less likely to mouth the
pieces and thus ruin the fit.
4 Through 5 Years
Four-year-olds have sufficient fine motor skill to work puzzles without knobs. Four- to five-year-
old children are also developing more systematic strategies for approaching puzzles, although
they often still rely on trial and error. Their increased cognitive ability allows them to do puzzles
with up to 60 pieces. Although children in this age group may prefer insets, some 4- and 5-year-
olds are beginning to work non-inset jigsaw type puzzles with medium wooden or cardboard
pieces. These children are becoming more interested in licensed themes involving action or
fashion oriented characters.
Game & Activity Play: Puzzles
152
6 Through 8 Years
Six-year-olds have developed the cognitive ability to work jigsaw type puzzles. They can
identify pieces based on where they go in the puzzle, can sort pieces, and have more systematic
methods of testing pieces for the puzzle. They generally are not interested in inset puzzles. They
will continue to do frame-type puzzles if they are complex enough and have enough pieces. They
can do puzzles with up to 100 pieces. Six- through eight-year-olds may require puzzle pieces to
be at least an inch across until they have developed the fine motor skills to handle smaller pieces.
Simple three-dimensional puzzles begin to interest children more as they approach 8 and 9 years
of age.
9 Through 12 Years
Nine- through 12-year-old children are interested in highly complex puzzles. They can follow
directions for puzzles with three dimensions, and they now have the fine motor skills required to
handle small, abstract, or interlocking pieces. Nine-year-olds can complete jigsaw puzzles with
up to 500 pieces, and 10- through 12-year-olds enjoy the challenge of puzzles with up to 2000
pieces.
Game & Activity Play: Puzzles
153
154
GAME & ACTIVITY PLAY: PUZZLES
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Inset puzzles with large pieces
-------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Smooth edges
Smooth edges
Number of Parts*
No more than 3-5 pieces
No more than 5-12 pieces
Interlocking/Loose Parts*
Pieces fit together without interlocking
-------------------------------------------------
Materials
Plastic, solid wood
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Use shape sorters in exploratory ways
Pieces fit together easily & only in one
way
Child can put together simple inset
puzzles, knobs make puzzles
easier to complete
Color/Contrast
Bright colors
-------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Interesting textures increases appeal
-------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Abstract shapes more than realistic
detail
Interested in realistic-looking objects
Licensed theme*
Some interest in licensed television
characters
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
155
Educational
Parents often buy puzzles for their
educational value
Relevant Play/Behavior
Will put together simple pieces that fit
together
Beginning interest in simple puzzles
Ability to do puzzles increases
depending on experience with
puzzles
Examples of Products
Chunky figurine puzzles with distinctly
shaped wells that fit the figurines
Form boards
-------------------------------------------------
Inset puzzles with knobs & large pieces
Puzzles that repeat the name of the
object put in the well if it has
electronic features
Peg-style shape sorters based on
colors
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
156
GAME & ACTIVITY PLAY: PUZZLES
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Able to use smaller parts;
still need parts to be
about 2” in size to
facilitate placement
-----------------------------------
Able to do puzzles with
smaller pieces (<2”)
Able to do puzzles with
pieces less than an inch
across
Shape of Parts
Smooth edges (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Number of Parts*
8-12 pieces
Age 4: 12-18 pieces
Age 5: Up to 35 pieces
Up to 100 pieces
Age 9: 100-500 pieces
Age 10: 500+ pieces
Interlocking/Loose Parts*
Inset puzzles without
interlocking pieces
Basic Jigsaw type puzzles
Interlocking jigsaw pieces &
3-dimensional puzzles
-----------------------------------
Materials
Cardboard
-----------------------------------
Paper
-----------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Increasing level of visual
discrimination & fine
motor skills
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Bright colors & pastels
-----------------------------------
Any color
-----------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail
Increasing interest in realistic
details
-----------------------------------
Like puzzles with
photographs or other
scenes
-----------------------------------
157
Licensed theme*
Like puzzles with popular
gentle cartoon
characters
Like puzzles with popular
cartoon characters
Like puzzles with popular
cartoon characters,
sports stars, & television
stars
-----------------------------------
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Parents buy puzzles for
educational purposes
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Relevant Play/Behavior
Trial & error placement of
pieces. Pieces need to
fit together clearly
Puzzles that do not go
together easily cause
frustration
More systematic placement
of pieces, beginning to
plan puzzle strategies
Have attention necessary to
complete puzzle in a few
minutes
Able to plan puzzle
completion & able to put
a puzzle together
systematically
Can pay attention to a puzzle
for an hour or return to a
puzzle for a second
sitting
Able to put together a puzzle
systematically
Able to do puzzles that
require several days to
complete
Examples of Products
Inset puzzles with knobs
Wooden puzzles
Magnetic puzzles with
connection between a
wand and a puzzle
piece (e.g., a ‘fishing’ or
‘bug catching’ puzzle)
Inset puzzles
Floor puzzles
Simple jigsaw puzzles
Paper & cardboard puzzles
100-piece puzzles
Simple 3-dimensional
puzzles
3-dimensional puzzles
Age 9: Jigsaw puzzles with
100-500 pieces
Age 10-12: Puzzles with 500
or more pieces
Abstract puzzles
Puzzles with instructions
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products
158
Game & Activity Play
159
CARD, FLOOR, BOARD, & TABLE GAMES
Board and card games have an ancient history with deep traditional roots. Because games are
social in nature, they are very appealing to children. Games also appeal to children because they
have a cognitive element, and give children an opportunity to interact with and learn from adults.
Infants and toddlers, however, have not developed the cognitive and motor skills required to take
part in structured games. Although they enjoy participating in social situations, 2-year-olds
cannot focus on game rules.
The games covered under this category include card games, lotto and bingo games, dominoes,
dice games, floor games, table games, and similar games. Games come in great varieties and
have a number of different permutations. By definition, games have a number of rules that
regulate how the players are expected to participate. Games may have different methods of
taking turns, and are based on randomness, strategy, or a combination of the two. Parents like
games because they can directly or indirectly teach cognitive and academic skills. Parents also
like traditional or classic board games because they enjoyed them as children.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of card, floor, board, and table games:
• Motor Skills Required
• Content Complexity
• Length of Time Required to Play
• Educational
• Classic
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
description of what types of card, floor, board, and table games are appropriate and how a
particular age group plays with these games.
Game & Activity Play: Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games
160
2 Years
Two-year-olds have developed rudimentary problem-solving skills, such as simple matching or
differentiation, but they do not have the cognitive skills or attention span required to participate
in true game play that involves rules or requires taking turns. Instead, children in this age group
will often use games of this sort as learning or educational toys (see Technology Play: Learning
Products and Smart Toys & Educational Software). Simple matching or lotto-type games, in
which the matching is based on pictures, shapes, or colors, rather than more abstract letters or
numbers, may be enjoyed by children in the latter half of this age group. Dominoes—especially
giant ones—also may be enjoyed by children in this age group. Based on observational data,
although 2-year-olds are attracted to magnetic fishing games, most do not possess adequate fine-
motor skills to be successful. These children may enjoy simple action games that involve
pressing a lever or flipping a marker into a hole. Play with these games may involve one other
child or adult, but children of this age will often choose to play with the game alone in
exploratory ways.
3 Years
Games for 3-year-olds must be very simple, with no more than five or six pieces involved, and
involve few rules. Three-year-olds can take turns and understand simple rules. They can follow a
plan of action by moving a piece from start to finish. Although 3-year-olds can concentrate on a
game, games for 3-year-olds should move quickly and not require too much time between turns.
In general, 3-year-olds cannot count to more than 10. They can recognize simple ABCs and 123s
in games, but cannot use reading for any part of the game. For this age group, using cards or
spinners is preferred to using dice as a method of moving, although a single die may be used.
Because 3-year-olds have little or no understanding of game strategies, suitable games are based
on chance. Most appropriate for 3-year-olds are activity games that do not have a final winner or
loser and are not goal directed. Children in this age group are unable to consider both an
opponent’s pieces and their own, so games should not require “blocking” an opponent. Children
also enjoy active movement games and cooperative games. Games for 3-year-olds best
incorporate some sort of physical participation, rather than cognitive strategies. Games for this
age group include simple lotto games, matching games, dominoes, magnetic fishing games, and
Game & Activity Play: Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games
161
simple board games using cards or spinners to indicate movement. Based on observational data,
children appear to struggle with magnetic fishing-type games at any younger ages. They enjoy
matching and memory games that require them to follow a set of actions in a pattern. For
example, children in this age group now have the memory skills to flip over an object with a
shape on it, turn it back over, and be able to relocate the shape. Appropriate card games require
only simple matching and do not require children to hold cards in their hands.
4 Through 5 Years
Children 4 through 5 years old have a greater interest in games, but they still lack the ability to
understand complex rules and strategies. Although most 4- and 5-year-olds are developing their
reading abilities, they generally cannot use written directions. Words and numbers can be used as
part of the game, if they are not needed for complex actions. Children of this age group are
interested in number- and letter-recognition games; and activity games with a physical
component are still very popular. Four- and five-year-olds do not have the fine motor skill to
hold more than a few cards at a time. Children in this age group are developing the fine motor
skills; pick-up-sticks, games that require balancing pieces on one another, and similar games are
appealing. They may enjoy handheld games filled with water with a large button with the goal of
launching small balls into baskets. Younger children may flip the handheld game over to move
the balls around, instead of using the strategy of button pressing. These children may be
introduced to simple, clear plastic, three-dimensional balls with a marble and wide track maze
inside (3-D maze balls), but they are still developing the fine motor skills that are required to
maneuver a marble along a pathway or conquer obstacles. At younger ages, children lacking
these motor and cognitive skills may be more likely to use a 3-D maze ball functionally (e.g., by
throwing or kicking it around).
Cognitively, they can remember a few rules and one or two strategies. They are egocentric, so
they are not very good at anticipating another player’s actions; and they like games based on
random factors. Therefore, as with 3-year-olds, games should not require “blocking” an
opponent. Children of this age group like dominoes, card matching, and lotto-type games.
Parents often buy children of this age group traditional or nostalgic games, such as Old Maid and
Game & Activity Play: Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games
162
similar games that have been around since their own childhood. Parents are also very attracted to
games that offer some sort of educational benefit, like letter and number recognition.
6 Through 8 Years
Children 6 through 8 years of age are very interested in all types of games. They enjoy playing
traditional card games, board, and floor and table games. They have the cognitive ability to
understand game technique and strategy, especially as they approach the latter end of this age
range. They have a great desire to play games because games are social. Some children are very
competitive and enjoy competing with others. They can anticipate moves and focus on more than
one rule at the same time. They can remember a number of moves and can use reading as part of
the activity. In addition, light and sound pattern pads are usable by children at this age, because
they have the cognitive skills to follow a pattern for multiple steps in sequence. When given a
light and sound pattern pad, children at younger ages are unable to wait for the prompts, and they
keep pressing the buttons without regard to the pattern. They can use traditional cards and
dominoes, and they can use reading and language as part of the game; however, they do not have
the ability to read and interpret the directions to the game without help. Children at this age can
make the fine motor movements needed to navigate labyrinth or maze games (including 3-D
maze balls) that require maneuvering a marble along a track or pathway to conquer obstacles. In
addition, they can strategize cognitively to figure out how to get the ball through the maze most
efficiently.
Parents often buy children in this group nostalgic or traditional games—that is, games that have
been around since their childhood. Children enjoy games based on popular licensed television
characters or cartoons. They are beginning to have an interest in simple fantasy, adventure-type
games that do not require extensive memory of detail. They also have the gross motor skills
required to participate in balancing and body movement activity games.
9 Through 12 Years
Nine- through 12-year-olds are very interested in all types of games, especially those that can be
played with peers. They can use abstract concepts and content area knowledge in playing games.
Game & Activity Play: Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games
163
Complex games of strategy are popular with this age group, and they have an extended attention
span, so they can play games that do not end in a single sitting. They have developed sufficient
fine motor coordination for complex labyrinth or maze games that require the careful shooting or
aiming of markers or marbles. Children at this age can make the fine motor movements needed
to navigate intricate 3-D maze balls that require maneuvering a marble along a narrow track to
conquer a large number of obstacles, as well as strategize how to get the marble through the
maze most efficiently. They are interested in educational topics and games like trivia games.
Children 9 through 12 years old are very interested in collecting, especially cards based on
popular cartoons or other licensed characters, music and fashion figures from popular culture.
Games that combine this age group’s interest in collecting and gaming are very popular.
Children in this age group also become interested in themes; so fantasy and adventure games are
appealing. They are also beginning to show more interest in adult topics, like war, fashion,
popular music, and movies.
164
GAME & ACTIVITY PLAY: CARD, FLOOR, BOARD, & TABLE GAMES
Product Characteristics
2 Years
3 Years
Size of Parts
Parts are large enough to handle easily
Parts are large enough to handle easily
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Sturdy pieces
Motor Skills Required*
Can manage magnetic fishing-rod games
Can press a lever and flip a marker into a hole
Difficulty holding cards
Color/Contrast
Bright, primary colors
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Games can have sound elements, like music or beeping
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Enjoy popular cartoon characters
Classic
Parents like to buy classic or nostalgic games
Robotic/Smart Features
165
Educational*
Parents like games that teach simple concepts, such as
colors, shapes, & pictures
Parents like educational games like letter & number-
recognition games
Relevant Play/Behavior*
Will play alone in exploratory ways, or can play with one
other person
Can match simple colors, shapes, & pictures
Vocabulary allows for naming pictures
Lacks the cognitive skills & attention span necessary to
participate in true game play with rules or turn-taking
Little understanding of games & strategies
Unaware of other players
Can only use simple ABCs & numbers in games
Examples of Products
Simple matching or lotto-type games
Giant picture dominoes
Simple action games
Magnetic fishing games
Matching games
Matching dominoes with pictures rather than dots
Games based completely on chance
Activity games that include physical movement, dance, or
drawing
Simple board games that use spinners or cards
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
166
GAME & ACTIVITY PLAY: CARD, FLOOR, BOARD, & TABLE GAMES
Product Characteristics
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Motor Skills Required*
Can hold 4 cards or less
Can move small pieces
Can hold a hand of cards
-----------------------------------------
Good eye-hand coordination
Speedy responses
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Games can have sound elements, like
music or beeping (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
Popular music
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Interested in popular cartoon & action
characters
Interested in action characters & sports
figures
-----------------------------------------
Classic*
Parents like to buy classic or nostalgic
games (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Robotic/Smart Features
167
Educational*
Parents like educational games like
reading & mathematics games
Interested in learning games like
science & nature games
Interested in collecting games
Interested in adult topics, trivia &
historical games
-----------------------------------------
Relevant Play/Behavior*
Some interest in games
Unaware of other players, cannot block
other players
Short attention span, can play no more
than about 30 minutes
Can use words on games but cannot
read directions
Can manage games involving
balancing objects
Very interested in games
Can use simple strategies, aware of
other player moves because better
at perspective taking
Games usually last an hour or less
Have difficulty reading directions but
can follow complex rules
Enjoy social nature of games
Interested in adult topics like war,
dating & fashion
Can use complex strategies
Can use academic content area
knowledge in games
Interested in collecting
Can play games over several days
Can read & interpret directions
Enjoy social nature of games
Examples of Products
Memory or matching games
Number & letter recognition games
Games based completely on chance
(cont’d)
Activity games like dancing or drawing
Pick-up-sticks
Simple board games that use spinners
or cards (cont’d)
Dominoes with dots
Simple card games like Old Maid
Handheld games filled with water with a
large button with the goal of
launching small balls into baskets
Traditional card games
Card games that involve counting &
sorting cards
Chess, Checkers, Backgammon,
Chinese checkers
Strategy games
Activity games
Simple word games
Dice games
Collector card games
Fantasy adventure games
Memory games that require adherence
to actions and patterns
Interactive games
Simulation games
Sports games
Abstract & academic content area
games
-----------------------------------------
Trivia games
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Labyrinth games and 3 D mazes
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
168
169
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY
Children enjoy sports and recreational play because it is social in nature and often pursued
outdoors. Children around the age of 12 months begin to enjoy recreational play, including ride-
on toys. As children enter the preschool and elementary years, they become more interested in
organized activities like sports. Parents frequently encourage sports and recreational play and
enjoy participating with children in these activities.
Ride-On Toys (p. 171)
• Bicycles
• Motorized vehicles
• Rocking horses
• Scooters
• Skateboards
• Tricycles
Recreational Equipment (p. 181)
• Aerobic dance materials
• Air guns
• Ball guns
• Ball pits
• BB guns
• Beach balls
• Climbers
• Cork guns
• Creative movement equipment (bean
bags, hoops, umbrellas, ribbons)
• Dart guns
• Diving toys
• Floor launchers
• Flying disks
• Goggles & flippers
• Gymnastics equipment
• Helicopter type projectiles
• Hiking equipment
• Horseshoes
• Ice skates
• Inflated bouncers
• Inline skates
• Jump ropes
• Marbles
• Mechanical swings
• Overhead equipment
• Parachutes
• Photography equipment
• Playground equipment
• Pools
• Projectiles from action figures
• Propelled rockets
• Rafts and boats
• Roller skates
• Scarves
• See-saws (teeter-totters)
• Skis
• Sleds
• Slides
•
• Snorkels
• Sprinklers
• Swings
• Table hockey
• Table tennis equipment
• Toboggans
• Trampolines
• Tunnels
• Weightlifting equipment
• Yoyos
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play
171
RIDE-ON TOYS
Ride-on toys allow a child to propel him or herself, either under his or her own power or through
the use of an electric or gasoline motor. Ride-on toys are very popular with children, who enjoy
both the sense of movement that they get from wheeled toys and the pretend element that
wheeled toys give them as they imitate the important adults in their lives. Ride-on toys are
important for developing a sense of balance, physical fitness, and coordination. The ride-on toys
covered under this category include sit-on riders, motorized vehicles, bicycles, skateboards,
scooters and tricycles, and rocker toys.
Several physical factors determine the age level for using ride-on toys. The first factor is balance.
Depending on the vehicle, more or less balance is required to use the vehicle. In general, wide-
spaced wheels and more wheels make the vehicle easier to balance. The second factor is the
rotational speed of the wheels. Wheels that turn very easily can move faster, and speed of
movement increases the difficulty level. The final factor is the method of propulsion. A wheeled
vehicle that relies on children pushing with their feet will move slowest, while wheeled vehicles
propelled by pedaling, or that use gears can attain greater speeds. Motorized vehicles can be set
at different speeds, with increased speed requiring greater physical skill. Children
under the age
of 1 year cannot use ride-on toys because they require a sense of balance to operate. The balance
that is required to use a ride-on toy usually develops when a child begins to walk with some
steadiness. In general, ride-on toys are not recommended for use without proper protective gear,
especially helmets.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of ride-on toys:
• Size of Parts (or of toy itself)
• Motor Skills Required
• Licensed theme
• Level of Realism/Detail
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Ride-On Toys
172
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of ride-on toys are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with these
toys.
12 Through 18 Months
Children become capable of using ride-on toys that are straddled and propelled by their feet only
after they learn to walk with some steadiness. Children in this age group, especially the youngest
in this age group, may not be able to alternate their feet when pushing ride-on toys. They cannot
yet pedal, and instead, they will propel the ride-on toy by pushing with both feet simultaneously.
For safety reasons, ride-on toys must be stable, and vehicles with four or more wheels tend to be
more stable than three- or two-wheeled vehicles. For this age group, appropriate ride-on toys
have wheels that are spaced relatively wide apart to be stable, but not so wide apart that it is
difficult for children to swing their legs over the seat. The toy should be low for easy mounting
and dismounting, and the children’s feet should be flat on the floor when they are seated.
For maneuverability, recessed wheels make it easier for the child to push herself or himself along
without banging their feet or legs into the wheels. Castors or wheels are appropriate. For the
youngest children in this age group, castors may be preferable, because they allow the toy to
move in any direction without tipping. A child’s first ride-on toys does not need to have steering
mechanisms because young children may not be able to use them effectively. Simple rocking
horses may be introduced. Suitable rocking horses are small and mounted and dismounted easily
to reduce the risk of falling. Children’s feet should touch the floor or the base of the horse when
they are seated, and the horse should have a confined rocking arc.
19 Through 23 Months
Children 19 through 23 months old can operate ride-on toys in which they sit inside and propel
the toy by pushing with their feet. However, these are more difficult to use than the straddle ride-
on toys because they are harder to steer and maneuver. Features that make ride-on toys more
attractive to children include bright colors, special sound effects, like beeping horns, or noises
produced by vehicle movement, and that come with covered compartments or storage bins.
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Ride-On Toys
173
Children at this age are interested in cause-and-effect actions that produce sounds or reveal
hidden items. Children in this age group are also interested in carrying and collecting items that
they can put in storage bins or compartments. Wagons are appropriate. Suitable rocking horses
are small and easily mounted to reduce the risk of falling. Children’s feet should touch the floor
or the base of the horse when they are seated, and the horse should have a confined rocking arc.
Features that make rocking horses popular include their realistic or nostalgic (like those popular
for previous generations of children) appearance, and their ability to make sounds. With adult
supervision, some children may be capable of making a slow-moving motorized vehicle stop and
go; but children in this age group are unlikely to have the steering skills needed to avoid
obstacles and hazards.
2 Years
Children 2 years old enjoy the same characteristics and features of ride-on toys as younger
children. Pretend play begins to appear around this age, so vehicles that are realistic, like pretend
fire engines, are popular. Parents are also interested in encouraging pretend play and are very
likely to buy realistic-looking vehicles for this age group. Children of this age group have
increased coordination and balance, so they can maneuver a ride-on toy that requires them to
bounce up and down in the seat. Slow-moving, three-wheeled scooters with wide standing
platforms also become attractive to children in this age group. They are learning to pedal, and
some children may start using tricycles with pedals—especially during the latter half of this age
group. However, they have not mastered this skill yet. Battery-operated vehicles appeal to
parents and children for this age group. Although children in this age group are physically
capable of steering vehicles of this type, most 2-year-olds lack the steering skills needed to
control slow-moving motorized vehicles and to avoid hazards.
3 Years
Children at age 3 have developed the ability to pedal, and have the coordination required to use a
steering wheel or handlebar. They can use three-wheeled scooters, but they have not developed
the balance required to operate two-wheeled scooters and bicycles. Children in this age group
enjoy tricycles and four-wheeled vehicles propelled by pedaling. Tricycles should be sized to the
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Ride-On Toys
174
child, and 12- or 13-inch wheels are about the right size for children in this age group. They can
use a small bicycle with training wheels, but foot brakes are preferred because children in this
age group cannot yet use hand brakes. Children at age 3 can steer a slow-moving, battery-
operated vehicle.
4 Through 5 Years
Children 4 and 5 years old are interested in vehicles used by older peers. They have little interest
in the types of ride-on toys that are commonly used by younger children, and prefer the bicycles
and scooters used by older peers. They begin to show an interest in skateboards. They can use
battery-operated vehicles, and depending on experience, most children by the age of 5 have the
balance and coordination to use two-wheeled scooters and bicycles without training wheels.
However, children in this age group do not understand the risks of riding in areas with cars, and
are at a very high risk of falling and injuring themselves. Therefore, adult supervision is a must,
and protective equipment like helmets, knee, and elbow pads should be used for these activities.
6 Through 8 Years
Most children by the age of 6 have the physical ability to ride a bicycle without training wheels.
They also have developed some understanding of the consequences of riding in areas shared by
cars and pedestrians. Six-year-olds have developed the coordination to use hand brakes, and
appropriately sized bicycles allow them to stand and straddle the bicycle with both feet on the
ground. Children of this age group are very interested in popular wheeled vehicles like scooters
and skateboards, and can operate slow-moving motorized vehicles, particularly those with four
wheels.
9 Through 12 Years
Children 9 through 12 years old are very capable bicycle and scooter riders, and they can use
bicycles with hand gears for different speeds. Bicycles and skateboards that are from licensed
brand names, or used by popular extreme sports riders, are popular with this age group. They are
usually fairly aware of traffic laws, but they are very likely to engage in high-risk behaviors like
riding in traffic and stunt riding. Generally, 9- through 12-year-old children can operate a
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Ride-On Toys
175
motorized wheeled vehicle that does not exceed 10 miles per hour and has gear shifting. Faster-
moving motorized bicycles and scooters are generally not appropriate even for 12-year-olds
because of difficulty associated with both balancing and steering the vehicle while moving.
176
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: RIDE-ON TOYS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Not too large for child’s size
Of a size that is easy to mount
Narrow enough to not hinder leg
movement & wide enough for
comfortable seating.
Child can touch ground with both feet
when seated
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Smooth edges
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Plastic, solid wood
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Uses both feet together
Unable to steer
Begins to alternate feet
Unable to steer effectively
Can pull a wagon
Can bounce up & down on seat
Able to steer
Learning to pedal
Color/Contrast
Bright colors
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Like vehicles that make sounds when
moved or when pushed
Like containers with doors for holding
objects
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
Like vehicles with beeping horns or that
make clicking noises
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
177
Level of Realism/Detail*
Not interested in realistic vehicles
-------------------------------------------------
Beginning interest in realistic vehicles
Licensed theme*
Not interested in licensed characters
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Classic
Parents like classic vehicles
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Enjoy ride-on toys
Like vehicles with doors, compartments
for carrying toys
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Beginning dramatic play
Interested in animals
Examples of Products
Non-pedal ride on toys
Simple, low rocking horses
-------------------------------------------------
Rocking horses
Wagons
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Slow-moving 3-wheeled scooters with
large standing platforms
Appropriately sized tricycles with pedals
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
178
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: RIDE-ON TOYS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Tricycle is sized to child
12” to 13” wheels about right
size for this age group
-----------------------------------
Child can touch ground with
both feet
Adult-size bicycles
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Motor Skills Required*
Able to pedal
Able to use foot brakes
Able to stand on & use
scooters & skateboards
by 5
Able to use hand brakes
Able to stand on & use
scooters & skateboards
Able to shift gears & use
hand brakes
Able to use stunt type
skateboards, scooters,
& bicycles
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Less interest in vehicles with
compartments
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail*
Like realistic-looking vehicles
like fire engines,
tractors, & motorcycles
-----------------------------------
Less interested in realistic-
looking vehicles
Licensed theme*
Like wheeled toys with
popular cartoon
characters
Like wheeled toys with
popular cartoons &
action figures
Like wheeled toys with
popular action figures
Like bicycles & skateboards
that have licenses from
popular athletes,
companies
179
Classic
Parents like classic vehicles
and wagons
-----------------------------------
Less interest in classic
vehicles
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Able to pedal
Able to steer slow moving
battery-operated
vehicles
Able to balance on bicycle
with training wheels
Can use skateboards & 2-
wheeled scooters by 5,
but may not use this
type of vehicle safely
Able to operate a motorized
vehicle
Usually able to balance on 2
wheels
Generally have the balance
required to operate
skateboards & scooters
-----------------------------------
Enjoy bicycling for fitness
Interested in stunt riding of
skateboards, bicycles, &
scooters
-----------------------------------
Motorized scooters &
bicycles require
cognitive skills & motor
skills that usually
develop after age 12
Examples of Products
Wagons
Tricycles (including low-
slung versions)
Slow moving battery-
operated vehicles
Rocking horses
Slow-moving 3-wheeled
scooters
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
3-wheeled scooters
2-wheeled scooters by age 5
Skateboards by age 5
Bicycles with training wheels
Bicycles with hand brakes
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Motorized 4-wheel vehicles
Bicycles with gears
Stunt bicycles
Go carts
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Motorized bicycles and
scooters at age 12+
Motorized vehicles with
gears at age 12+
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
180
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play
181
RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT
Recreational equipment differs from sports equipment in that recreational equipment generally is
not associated with competitive activities. Rather, recreational equipment is used for leisure
activities. The main areas covered under recreational equipment include playground equipment,
water play equipment, winter sports equipment, creative movement equipment and small
equipment leisure games, like beach balls, marbles, horseshoes, and flying disks. Other
equipment that falls under this subcategory includes skates, projectile toys, backyard play
equipment, and gear for adult-play activities. Recreational activities are popular for adults and
children. Adults and children enjoy participating in many of the same recreational activities to
spend time together and keep fit. Due to the wide variety of equipment under this category, a
number of cognitive and physical skills are required to use recreational equipment. Therefore,
except for tot swings and soft play equipment, this equipment is inappropriate for children under
2 years of age. For younger children, please see the Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors,
Mobiles, & Manipulatives. For safety guidelines and more information on playground
equipment, please refer to CPSC’s Handbook for Public Playground Safety.
15
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of recreational equipment:
• Classic
• Motor Skills Required
• Size of Parts
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
description of what types of recreational equipment are appropriate and how a particular age
group plays with such equipment.
15
Available at https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/325.pdf.
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment
182
Birth Through 3 Months
Children at this age enjoy the movement associated with slow-moving mechanical swings, but
cannot sit upright and generally remain lying on their backs. Therefore, appropriate swings must
completely support the child.
4 Through 7 Months
Children at this age can generally sit supported and enjoy the movement associated with slow-
moving mechanical swings. By 6 or 7 months, children begin to sit unsupported and enjoy being
pushed in a swing. Appropriate swings for this age group entirely support the child.
8 Through 11 Months
Children usually begin to crawl and walk at this age. They begin to climb, and they enjoy soft
play climbers like pads and ramps. Very short tunnels (2 feet or less) with mirrors or viewing
panels (top or side) that allow for eye contact with a caregiver may facilitate crawling in some
children. Children of this age enjoy bouncing activities and swinging. Appropriate swings for
this age group entirely support the child. Appropriate equipment does not have protrusions and is
washable because children in this age group frequently mouth objects.
12 Through 18 Months
Children ages 12 through 18 months are gaining confidence as climbers and walkers, and most
children in this age group have learned to walk. Children in this age group can climb heights, but
they lack an awareness of the consequences of falling. Soft play equipment is very enjoyable for
children of this age, including very short slides and small tunnels (3.5 feet or less), ramps, and
ball pits. Children may need adult assistance using slides at first, because some children may
need to be taught how to enter the slide from the correct direction and slide down. Children may
not yet have the cognitive skills to realize that a slide is not meant for use as a ramp for crawling
up. Children of this age enjoy bouncing, throwing, and chasing after balls. Lightweight balls are
best for children with limited gross motor skills at this age. However, large balls are necessary
because most children will grasp and catch with both hands. At this age, children especially
delight in balls that light up or make noise when bounced. These balls should be light-to-medium
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment
183
in weight and easy to throw (i.e., have a raised, textured surface, e.g., spiky balls) given
children’s limited strength at this age. They should also be made of a soft material, such as
rubber, because children at this age lack the inhibition to refrain from throwing the ball at people
or fragile objects.
19 Through 23 Months
Children now begin to walk and climb with confidence. However, they do not understand cause-
and-effect and lack an awareness of the consequences of falling. Children at this age enjoy tot
swings and can sit without support, but they should be entirely enclosed by the swing. Soft play
equipment such as tunnels and ramps continues to be popular. Children in this age group also are
interested in balls that make a sound when shaken, squeezed or thrown. Their ability to kick and
throw is improved, so balls should be soft and light-to-medium-weight.
2 Years
By 2 years of age, children are interested in some types of outdoor playground equipment. Most
2-year-olds can climb steps and short ladders, and may get themselves to the top of a climbing
structure only to find that they cannot get back down. They enjoy sliding and swinging, and they
are increasingly interested in crawling through medium-length tunnels (6 feet or less).
Appropriate swings for this age group entirely support the child. Appropriate playground
equipment has rounded edges and is free of protrusions. Loose ropes and straps can form a noose
around the child’s neck, and therefore, present a risk of strangulation. Around 2 years of age,
children start to take an interest in creative movement activities. They enjoy moving to music,
repeating song lyrics, and participating in finger games. Materials for creative movement at this
age are generally limited to parachutes, played under adult supervision, in which children pull
the parachute back and forth and up and down to create waves and sounds. As they near 3 years
of age, children in this age group are developing the necessary balance and cognitive abilities to
stand on and use skates. However, they will find skates difficult to use, unless the wheels can
lock, roll in only one direction, or limit movement to keep them from sliding out from under the
child. Customarily, water sports activities are not appropriate because children of this age usually
cannot swim and are at a very high risk of drowning.
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment
184
3 Years
Children by 3 years of age enjoy most types of playground equipment, including open swings,
slides, and climbers. Children at this age also are interested in inflatable bouncers. Backyard
playground equipment may involve swings, slides, climbers, and overhead equipment. By the
age of 3, children have developed the balance and cognitive abilities to use skates more
effectively, although limited wheel movement is still important for most children. Children at
this age are interested in creative movement and can use materials like beach balls, scarves,
ribbons, parachutes, and plastic hoops in their creative movement. Children also enjoy climbing
through long (9 feet or less) enclosed tunnels at this age; at younger ages, they may feel too
scared or intimidated to crawl through. Although 3-year-olds enjoy being in the water with adult
supervision, water sports can be very risky at this age, because children this age usually cannot
swim. Sprinklers and water play are popular with this age group.
4 Through 5 Years
By the age of 4, children generally have the balance to use four-wheeled, non-inline skates.
Playground equipment for 4- and 5-year-olds may contain overhead ladders and fire poles,
slides, climbers, and swings. They can pump a swing, climb a rope ladder, and climb up an
inclined board. They also begin to become interested in acrobatics. Children usually learn to
swim around age 4 or 5, depending on their experience with water; however, they require
constant supervision. Children at this age continue to enjoy sprinklers and other water-play toys.
They can use rafts and other support devices for the water. Children in this age group can use
water guns, but suitable ones are small and low powered because children of this age may be
unaware of the consequences of using water as a projectile. Children by the age of 4 begin to
show an interest in small equipment for recreational purposes. They have sufficient fine- and
gross motor skills to include materials like beanbags and umbrellas in their creative movement
activities. Children enjoy free and creative movement activities with these materials. Four-year-
olds can use marbles, flying disks, and throw soft plastic horseshoes and bean bags towards
targets.
Many children at the start of this age group are attracted to winter sports like skiing, ice skating
and sledding. These can be hazardous due to the speed created on ice and snow. Therefore,
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment
185
children should wear proper protection when participating in these activities. Children of this age
are interested in projectile toys, but they have immature judgment and do not have the cognitive
understanding of consequences. Consequently, they may do dangerous things with projectiles or
other equipment. Soft and very lightweight projectiles, including those on action figures and that
do not fly more than 12 inches, are appropriate for this age.
Balls are enjoyed by all ages; however, small balls, especially hard ones, are not appropriate for
young children because of the high likelihood that children this age mouth small objects. High-
bounce balls rebound forcefully and travel at speeds generally too fast for children under 5 years
of age. They are not usually considered appropriate for children under 5 because this age group
overzealously throws them, and unable to anticipate the ball's careening trajectories, endanger
themselves, bystanders, and property.
6 Through 8 Years
Children ages 6 through 8 are accomplished players on playground equipment. They can use
flexible climbers, ring treks, and other complicated apparatus. They enjoy climbing, swinging,
and chasing on playgrounds. However, children this age may use playground equipment in
unexpected ways. By the age of 6, children generally have the balance to stand using in-line
skates. Children 6 through 8 years old can begin using trampolines; however, trampoline use can
be hazardous without experience and adult supervision. Children have the ability to throw a
flying disk by the age of 6. At this age, children are starting to jump rope, and this interest
increases as they gain skill with this activity. Children in this age group are developing
independence as swimmers, and sometimes participate in organized swimming and water sports
activities. They enjoy diving for objects in the water and can use goggles, snorkels, and flippers.
By this age, children can handle larger and more powerful water guns.
Six- through 8-year-olds continue to use small equipment for recreational activities. Children in
this age group begin to lose interest in creative movement activities as they take more interest in
organized movement activities like dance and gymnastics. Photography is popular with this age
group as they take an interest in photography equipment. They enjoy multiplayer activities, such
as bowling, horseshoes, and bean bag games, where they can employ specific strategies to win.
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment
186
Children in this age group enjoy throwing bean bags toward pockets with assigned shapes or
high point values, as well as keeping track of points. They are very interested in winter sports,
like skiing and skating. Most children are capable of learning to ski, ice skate, and sled with
exposure to training. Children in this age group are also interested in projectile toys. They have a
greater understanding of the consequences of projectiles, but do not have the physical control
needed to expel high-speed projectiles. They can use soft or lightweight projectiles, like table
tennis balls, soft darts, and foam projectiles, and they can also use helicopter-type projectiles.
These children can manage projectile toys that fly farther and at a faster speed. Air-propelled
floor launchers with soft foam projectiles that are activated when a child steps on a pumping pad
are appropriate for this age group. Children in this age group are starting to play table-based
games, such as ping pong, foosball, and various forms of hockey (air- and lever-based). They
have the fine motor skills needed to align figurines with a puck using levers (including
coordinated pushing and twisting actions), if the table is set to an appropriate height for them.
9 Through 12 Years
Children in this age group are very accomplished on playground equipment, but often use the
equipment in unintended ways. They are also outgrowing playground equipment and moving on
to more organized sports. They start to become interested in athletics for their own sake.
Children in this age group begin to take an interest in weightlifting equipment, as well as aerobic
exercise and dance. Depending on experience, they can be accomplished skaters and frequently
take risks when using skates. Children in this age group can use all types of in-line skates. They
are strong swimmers, if they have had appropriate training in water sports. They can participate
in water sports and activities like water polo.
Children at this age are interested in small equipment for recreational purposes. They enjoy
traditional games like horseshoes and can be proficient with adult-sized equipment. They are also
interested in more adult-like activities, such as collecting, hiking, nature studies, and
photographic equipment. Nine- through 12-year-olds are very interested in winter sports.
Depending on experience, many children can ski, ice skate, and sled. Children in this age group
are developing some understanding of projectiles. They can use air-propelled projectiles like
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment
187
rockets, cork guns, and small plastic disks. Products like BB guns, which fire penetrating
projectiles, are inappropriate for children in this age group.
188
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Soft vinyl
Motor Skills Required*
Cannot sit unsupported
Infant sits unsupported
Begins walking & climbing
Color/Contrast
Bright colors
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Enjoy rocking motion of swings
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Enjoy different textures & soft materials
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
189
Relevant Play/Behavior
Do not have the motor skills required to
actively use recreational equipment
Crawling, sitting up
Enjoys movement
Beginning to walk and climb
Little fear of heights; at risk of falling
Mouth objects, all equipment should be
washable
Interested in exploring environment
Examples of Products
Mechanical swings that completely
support the child
Mechanical swings
-------------------------------------------------
Soft play ramps & pads
Large soft balls like beach balls
Ball pits and small tunnels (2 feet or
less)
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
190
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Vinyl & plastic for equipment, rubber
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Throwing, chasing & kicking soft balls
Walking & climbing for playground
equipment
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Able to stand on skates as they
approach 3 years of age
Color/Contrast
Bright colors
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail
Equipment can be abstract
Beginning to show interest in realistic
playground equipment
Interest in playground equipment, which
promotes pretend play
May find skates difficult to use unless
wheels lock or have limited
movement
Licensed theme
Classic
191
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Walking & climbing
Exploring environment
Mouths objects; all equipment should
be washable
Little fear of heights; at risk of falling
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interested in water; great risk of
drowning
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interested in group movement activities
Examples of Products
Soft play climbers
Slides with rails
Tot swings
Large soft balls like beach balls
Ball pits
Playground balls
Short tunnels (3.5 feet or less)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Parachutes
Wading pools (with adult supervision)
Skates with locking or limited-
movement wheels (near 3 years)
-------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
192
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
Size of Parts*
Child-size equipment
-----------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Wood & metal
-----------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Able to throw & catch with both hands
Able to use skates with limited wheel movement
Able to climb & swing unsupported
Beginning to learn to swim
Beginning to be able to skate & ski
Able to use overhead equipment & fire poles
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail
Interested in realistic-looking playground equipment
Less interest in realistic-looking playground equipment
Licensed theme
Interested in licensed theme of cartoon characters
Classic*
Parents introduce winter sports activities
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Little understanding of rules & strategies
Interested in free movement activities rather than organized
sports
Interested in water play
Increasing confidence in the water; learning to swim
Interest in winter sports
193
Examples of Products
Pools (with adult supervision)
Sprinklers
Low-movement roller skates (not inline skates)
Inflatable bouncers
Playground equipment like climbers, slides, & unsupported
swings
Creative movement materials, hoops, scarves, beach balls,
ribbons, parachutes, flying disks
Sleds
Long tunnels (9 feet or less)
-----------------------------------
Low-movement roller skates and double runner ice skates
Playground equipment including overhead equipment and
fire poles
Creative movement materials, bean bags, umbrellas
Small-size ski equipment
Sleds: disks, toboggans, plastic sheets
Soft, very lightweight projectiles that fly less than 12 inches
Marbles
Soft horseshoes
Flying disks
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
194
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Begin to be able to use adult-size equipment
Adult-size equipment
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Wood & metal (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Able to swim
Able to skate & ski
Able to use gymnastics equipment like rings & trampolines
Strong swimmer
Strong skills for winter sports
Able to use all gymnastic equipment
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Interested in licensed theme of professional athletes
-----------------------------------
Classic*
Interested in traditional activities like horseshoes & marbles
-----------------------------------
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Usually able to swim
Do not have the cognitive understanding to understand high
speed projectiles
Take risks on skates, bicycles, & playground equipment
Developing understanding of consequences of projectiles;
mature understanding for some projectiles will not
develop until after age 12
Interested in fitness & fitness equipment
Interested in organized recreational activities
195
Examples of Products
Water play equipment, diving equipment, flippers, goggles,
snorkels
Roller skates, inline skates
Gymnastics equipment, rings, trampolines
Sleds with steering mechanisms, hand brakes, toboggans,
skis, single runner skates
Water guns
Soft, lightweight projectiles like table tennis balls, soft darts,
& soft foam projectiles; also helicopter-type projectiles
Air powered floor launchers with soft projectiles activated
when child steps on a pumping pad
Table sports with levers or pushers to manipulate puck
Bean bag games that involve aiming for targets (shape, or
point value pockets)
Cameras
Jump ropes
Marbles (cont’d)
Horseshoes
Flying disks (cont’d)
Air propelled rockets, & other projectiles
Kites
Hiking equipment
Weightlifting equipment
Aerobic & dance activities
Cork guns and other guns that shoot smaller projectiles, high
pressure water guns
Darts, BB guns, Air guns at 12+
Combustion type rockets for ages 12+
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
196
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play
197
SPORTS EQUIPMENT
Children, especially those between 6 and 12 years of age, enjoy playing games and sports. Sports
encourage movement and combine the elements of strategy and physical skills. They also
provide opportunities for children to show their skills and to test their ability as they confront
others in game play. This category includes equipment for traditional sports like football,
baseball, basketball, racquet sports, golf, hockey, soccer, and net sports. Most of these sports
have long historical, cultural, and traditional foundations, which add to their appeal as parents
teach sports to their children that they played themselves. Active sports and games also
frequently have professional athletes that children can watch and emulate.
Sports generally require specialized equipment and a place to play. Sports can require specialized
physical skills, like swinging a bat at a ball, and generalized skills like moving through space
without running into other players. Before children can fully take part in organized activities like
sports, they must understand the rules. However, children enjoy interacting with sports
equipment to develop their physical skills before they understand the rules needed to participate
in an organized sport, and children use specialized equipment starting at 12 months. The
cognitive ability to play sports effectively usually develops around age 6. Children in this age
group have an interest in playing games with rules and have the cognitive ability to strategize
about games. Balls for exploratory play that are also associated with active sports and games are
also included in Exploratory and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives and Sports,
Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Recreational Equipment.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of sports equipment:
• Classic
• Size of Parts
• Licensed theme
• Motor Skills Required
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Sports Equipment
198
of these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
description of what types of sports equipment are appropriate and how a particular age group
plays with such equipment.
12 Through 18 Months
Although gross motor skills are still rudimentary at this age, specialized sporting equipment can
be appealing for children in this age group. Replica toys with sporting features that come with
easy-to-hold balls can teach children new skills. At this age, children may be introduced to small
combination sport centers (e.g., a basketball hoop soccer net with climber). These children are
learning to place balls into hoops or nets.
19 Through 23 Months
Children’s interests and abilities are similar to those at 12-18 months, but they need equipment
that is bigger to accommodate their growth. Stand-alone basketball hoops with adjustable heights
and come with soft balls are appropriate. Due to improvements in gross motor skills, these
children are better able to place balls into hoops or nets from a standing or moving position.
2 Years
Two-year-old children are developing the gross motor skills that are used in games and sports.
These include running, climbing, and balancing. Children can grasp, kick, and throw a ball. They
are also interested in balls that make a sound when shaken, squeezed, or thrown. Two-year-old
children are still learning cause-and-effect relationships and have very uncertain control of their
movements. Therefore, sports equipment for this age tends to be soft. Parents may be interested
in purchasing replica sports equipment for children of this age. Examples include lightweight
bowling sets (cloth or plastic), which are especially appealing because throwing a ball and seeing
objects fall down is exciting for this age group. At younger ages, children may try to knock over
the pins using their hands or feet instead of coordinating with a ball. As their coordination and
gross motor skills develop, these children are starting to throw or kick a ball towards a target
such as a basketball hoop or soccer net.
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Sports Equipment
199
3 Years
Children at the age of 3 begin to take a more active interest in sports skills. They begin to
develop fundamental motor skills like kicking, striking, throwing, catching, collecting, carrying,
and dribbling. They can now put a ball in a basket or target from 4 to 5 feet away. Most 3-year-
olds can participate in collective games that have few rules. Children in this age group begin to
show interest in a variety of throw-and-catch activities. At this age, children can use pad mitts
with hook-and-loop fasteners that can “catch” a ball with a similar hook-and-loop surface,
because they finally have the coordination needed to align a mitt with a ball that is coming their
way. They enjoy free movement and non-directive activities. Squishy yoyos with a bouncing
string mechanism are also mastered at this age. Children at younger ages may use the squishy
yoyo and bounce it up and down without putting their finger through the loop due to lack of fine
motor skills. They also may not understand the concept of a yoyo, and thus, only use the toy as a
ball. Younger children will also be tempted to bite and chew on the yoyo material. Sports
equipment for this age includes smaller-sized balls and games, soft balls, bats and clubs, bowling
games, and goals or nets.
4 Through 5 Years
Starting at the age of 4, children can participate in organized sports activities like tee ball, kick
ball, and soccer. However, they require modified equipment and rules. Children at this age enjoy
throwing or kicking to goals, nets, or other targets. Parents frequently begin enrolling children in
this age group in youth sports activities. Also popular for parents at this age are child-sized
versions of adult equipment, like golf clubs and tennis racquets.
Children at the age of 4 have a limited attention span for organized sports, so rules are often
modified to reduce any reliance on strategy. Four-year-olds are egocentric or unaware of the
participation of other players. Smaller-sized balls, bats, and gloves are appropriate for this age.
Four-year-olds begin to develop the skill of hitting a moving ball with a bat or racquet. Because
children in this age group are still developing coordination, soft or padded bats and balls are
preferable.
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Sports Equipment
200
6 Through 8 Years
Six-year-olds are very interested in active sports. They can understand most rules of a game or
sport and have the physical skills needed to participate in most sports, including baseball,
softball, and football. Children at the age of 6 are developing the strength needed to handle full-
size equipment, including basketballs, footballs, and soccer balls. However, smaller-sized
equipment is generally preferred over adult-sized equipment. For basketball, the ball tends to be
lighter and the nets lower for younger children. Net games like volleyball require more advanced
physical skills and are not introduced until age 7 or 8. Children have developed an ability to
skate by the age of 6, and so they can participate in games of street or ice hockey. Children in
this age group can swing a racquet and hit a moving object, but they require lightweight
equipment. Many children at this age are introduced to golf using modified clubs. Other mallet
games like croquet are also popular.
9 Through 12 Years
Nine- through 12-year-olds are very interested in organized sports. They have all the physical
skills required to participate in active sports and games, and they understand the rules and
strategies of these games. Children at this age enjoy training equipment that promotes skills like
throwing at targets. They can also handle adult-sized equipment.
Sports, Recreational, & Outdoor Play: Sports Equipment
201
202
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: SPORTS EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Small size for grasping or large for
holding with 2 hands
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Soft materials, cloth, rubber, foam,
plastic
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Able to grasp a large ball with 2 hands
Able to throw towards a target
Able to kick a ball
Able to hit a stationary ball with a bat or
club
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Able to grasp a small soft ball with 1
hand
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Bright colors
Colors that mimic adult sports
equipment
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Interested in balls that whistle or
squeak
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
Enjoy balls of different textures
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Replica sports equipment
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Licensed theme
203
Classic*
Parents begin to emphasize classic or
traditional sports
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Able to throw and kick
Fundamental movement phase
No understanding of rules or game
strategies
Little interest in organized activities
Prefer free-movement activities
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Able to catch
Examples of Products
Soft balls
Soft, replica sports equipment
Targets, nets or goals for throwing
Small-size basketball, soccer goals
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Larger basketball hoops
Light up or noisemaking balls when
bounced
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Bowling sets
-----------------------------------------
Large balls about 10” in diameter
Soft bats or clubs
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
204
SPORTS, RECREATIONAL, & OUTDOOR PLAY: SPORTS EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Small size for grasping or
large for holding with 2
hands (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Progressing from child-size
to adult-size equipment
Able to use adult-size sports
equipment
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Soft cloth, rubber, foam, or
plastic (cont’d)
-----------------------------------
Leather, hard balls & bats,
wood, metal
-----------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Can kick a ball hard
Can catch a large ball
Can throw a ball about 10 ft
Able to bounce a ball
Can hit a moving ball with a
bat or racquet
Strong overhand throw
Can kick a moving ball
Greater ease and control of
bodily movement
Able to catch a small ball
Can bounce ball effectively
Can play racquet and club
sports
Developing adult like sports
skills
Can play net games like
volleyball
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Interested in balls that
whistle or squeak
(cont’d)
Less interest in cause &
effect
Sensory Elements
Enjoy balls of different
textures (cont’d)
Less interest in sensory
elements
Level of Realism/Detail
Interested in real sports
equipment
-----------------------------------
Licensed theme*
Interested in licensed
cartoon figures
Interested in licensed sports
figures
-----------------------------------
205
Classic*
Parents begin to emphasize
classic or traditional
sports
-----------------------------------
Children begin to be more
interested in classic or
traditional sports
-----------------------------------
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Interested in skill-training
equipment
Relevant Play/Behavior
Little understanding of rules
-----------------------------------
Often enrolled in youth
sports like tee ball,
junior golf & soccer
Growing understanding of
rules & strategies
Very interested in youth
sports
Understanding of complex
rules & strategies
-----------------------------------
Examples of Products
Soft balls
Balls of all shapes & sizes
Large balls about 10” in
diameter
Replica sports equipment
that is soft
Soft bats or clubs
Targets, nets, or goals for
throwing
Small-size basketball, soccer
goals
Hook-and-loop pad mitts and
compatible balls
Squishy yoyos
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Child-size sports balls
(Footballs, baseballs,
basketballs, soccer
balls)
Child-size racquets, bats, &
clubs
Child-size nets & goals
Croquet equipment
Bowling sets
-----------------------------------
Adult-size sports balls
(Footballs, baseballs,
basketballs, soccer
balls)
Adult-size racquets, bats, &
clubs
Net or goal game equipment
like basketball,
volleyballs, badminton,
table tennis
-----------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
206
207
MEDIA PLAY
Media Play involves children in the production of art or music through media of all types.
Arts & Crafts (p. 209)
• All scissors
• Balloons
• Blunt-end scissors
• Camera and photography equipment
• Carving, bookbinding, block printing,
flower pressing, calligraphy, sketching
• Chalk, chalkboard
• Clay or play dough, molds
• Coloring books
• Crayons, markers, brushes, color pencils
• Crochet, embroidery, knitting,
needlepoint, sewing machines
• Easels
• Finger painting
• Glitter, yarn, pom-poms
• Kits (e.g., jewelry, beading, soap, basket,
candle, and modeling)
• Large beads on shoelace string
• Large size art or construction paper
• Large size or spherical crayons and
markers
• Leatherwork and tools
• Magnetic shaving art boards
• Metal working
• Mosaic, ceramic
• Non-toxic tempera paint and large
brushes
• Pastels, water colors
• Plaster of Paris and papier-mâché
• Pop beads
• Pre-gummed paper and scissors
• Printing equipment
• Puppetry, doll-making
• Sewing activities and kits, mini looms
• Smaller beads and string
• Stamps and non-toxic ink
• Tools for clay work
• Wood burners, screwdrivers, pliers
Musical Instruments (p. 223)
• Blocks (scraping and tapping), triangles,
rhythm sticks, cymbals
• Button activated electronic music
makers and instruments
• Drums, electronic drum pads, bongos,
tambourines
• Flute, recorder
• Horns, harmonica, whistle
• Musical interactive and smart toys (see
also Educational & Academic Play:
Learning Products and Technology
Play: Smart Toys & Educational
Software)
• Musical mobiles and gyms (see also
Exploratory and Practice Play)
• Small, light tambourines
• CD/DVDs (see also Technology Play:
Audiovisual Equipment)
• Ukulele, violin, autoharp
• Wrist, ankle, and handheld bells
• Wrist, ankle, and handheld chimes
• Wrist, ankle, and handheld rattles
• Xylophones, keyboards, pianos,
accordions, floor pianos
Media Play
208
Media Play
209
ARTS & CRAFTS
Arts and crafts are an integral part of children’s total development. Nourishing the creative and
expressive self is important to instilling self-assurance and enhancing both creative thinking and
problem solving. This can be accomplished through activities in which the child can work with
different types of artistic media and materials. Arts and crafts are generally not appropriate until
about the age of 12 months. Beginning in toddlerhood, many children are given opportunities for
free expression through art materials. Crafts play an important part in learning skills that are
more work related, such as sewing, knitting, block printing, bookbinding, and doll making.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of arts and crafts:
• Cause & Effect
• Sensory Elements
• Size of Parts
• Color/Contrast
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
description of what types of arts and crafts are appropriate and how a particular age group plays
with these media.
8 Through 11 Months
From 8 through 11 months of age, infants become more mobile and their behaviors become more
coordinated and outwardly initiated. Because of this increase in physical and cognitive
development, infants around this age are beginning to understand simple cause-and-effect
relationships. This makes art materials somewhat attractive for children of this age, but only in a
functional/exploratory way. These children can grasp large, easy-to-grip crayons and markers
and can make marks on a piece of paper. However, these children do not generally draw or
Media Play: Arts & Crafts
210
scribble until they reach 1 year old. Since children of this age have a propensity for exploring
objects orally, paints are not recommended.
12 Through 18 Months
Children from 12 through 18 months of age are increasingly curious and love to explore, traits
that are facilitated by their increasing walking skills. They have increasingly good balance at this
age, and may begin making marks on the wall or an easel. They are working on fine motor
coordination and can perform many manual functions, including controlled grasping and
releasing. They may even exhibit a preference for a dominant hand at close to 18 months of age.
They are even exploring the world more expansively through all their senses: seeing, hearing,
touching, tasting, and smelling. They are still interacting with the art materials in a
functional/exploratory way and have very short attention spans. They scribble either by imitation
or spontaneously, and can make circular marks.
Suitable materials are appropriately sized to children’s grips, and are lightweight but sturdy.
Large easy-to-grip crayons and markers are appropriate for children in this age group, and large
sheets of art and construction paper are best. Crayons in the shape of spheres, and markers in the
shape of chunky animals, are easy for children to grip at this age. At this age, children’s fine
motor skills are rudimentary, but they are able to scribble with these chunky writing utensils,
instead of playing with crayons and markers as manipulative play objects as they might at
younger ages. Children who can remain in a standing position can use easels. Finger painting
with washable and non-toxic paint is appropriate at this age. Children can also hold tablets in
their lap that have gel or particles inside, and they can make marks or other designs with their
finger because this only requires limited fine motor skills.
19 Through 23 Months
Representational and symbolic thinking emerges between 19 and 23 months; however,
representational art is only in its infancy, even as they approach 2 years of age. Although their
drawings look nonrepresentational and are not recognized as representational by adults, they
represent something to children in this age group. By 2 years of age, some can draw simple
Media Play: Arts & Crafts
211
angles. The fine motor movements of children in this age group are becoming more skillful.
Their behaviors are goal-directed, and they like to experiment. Art, in general, and scribbling, in
particular, provides them with a non-verbal means of expression. Furthermore, scribbling assists
children in developing muscle control, which is needed for the next stage of development.
Suitable materials are appropriately sized to children’s grips, and are lightweight but sturdy.
Large easy-to-grip crayons and markers are appropriate for children in this age group, and large
sheets of art and construction paper are best. Some children will choose easels for artwork.
Because children this age have a propensity for exploring objects orally, paints are not
recommended for this age. As they approach 2 years, children can string large beads on shoelace
string.
2 Years
Two-year-olds are very interested in representational and symbolic play. Their fine motor
movements are becoming more skillful, and their manual dexterity is improving. They also begin
to represent through their art at this age. The range of art materials available to them greatly
increases because of cognitive and physical developments, although they may still put objects in
their mouth. They also love the texture of materials and will use their hands to handle materials
whenever possible. They love to finger paint. Use of non-toxic and washable, or mess-free finger
paint (i.e., clear gel that activates special paper), is appropriate at this age. Children are
beginning to use a chunky stylus to make marks or designs on a tablet with gel or black particles
inside. They can make color distinctions, move fingers independently of each other, and may be
beginning to cut with blunt-end scissors. They can scribble, draw circular marks, some vertical
lines, copy circles, and crosses. Between 24 and 30 months, they can add two parts to a human
outline, after which this increases to three parts. The process of creating art is more important to
them than the final art product.
As with materials for younger age groups, suitable materials are appropriately sized to children’s
grips, and are lightweight but sturdy. Large easy-to-grip crayons and markers are appropriate for
2-year-old children, as are soft modeling clay and similar substances. Non-toxic tempera paints
and large brushes work well for children in this age group; and large sheets of art and
Media Play: Arts & Crafts
212
construction paper are still best for this age. Some children will choose easels for artwork. They
can use blunt-end scissors and string large beads, and finger painting is also a popular art
activity. Finally, although children at this age are too young to use conventional stickers (they
may get put in the mouth and require dexterity to use), children can use pre-gummed sticker pads
and attach large, easy-to-grip items to them.
3 Years
Children 3 years of age refer to the symbolic aspects of their art when they talk about their art.
They will make the same shapes and scribbles repeatedly, practicing and exploring through art.
They are highly attracted by art materials that produce interesting effects and are tactually
stimulating. They are less likely to mouth art and craft materials, making scented materials more
appropriate. They are learning to handle scissors and glue, and their fine motor control continues
to improve. They can add four to five parts to the outline of a person, and can copy circles and
squares. They can perceive distinctions in sizes. Some can use pop beads in expected ways.
Suitable materials are appropriately sized to children’s grips, and are lightweight but sturdy.
Three-year-old children enjoy using large crayons (and may begin transitioning to thinner
crayons), markers, and brushes that are easy to grip. Non-toxic tempera and regular or pigmented
finger paints are more appropriate for children 3 years of age and above, because children in this
age group are less likely to lick or swallow paint. They can use varying sizes and colors of art
and construction paper. Children in this age group may be introduced to coloring books with
large simple outlines and ample coloring space. However, these children do not have the
appropriate fine motor skills to follow an outline, particularly with standard-sized crayons. These
children also lack the inhibitory control to keep working on a single picture—they may flip
through each page of the book and scribble something on each picture. They can now begin to
use clay and similar materials with molds to make shapes; whereas, at younger ages, children
may have only used the clay for manipulation, instead of trying to make a specific shape using a
mold. Children enjoy working at easels. Now that they are beginning to use round-nosed scissors
and non-toxic glue, they can make collages and create scrapbooks. They can use pre-gummed
paper pieces, stickers, glitter, yarn pieces, and small pom-poms in their creations. They can also
string beads, manipulate (foam) clay, modeling dough, moldable (wet texture) sand, and write or
Media Play: Arts & Crafts
213
draw on chalkboards with chalk. At this age, children are also good at manipulating boards with
magnetic shavings controlled by knobs to make designs. Fine motor skills at this age allow
children to maneuver both knobs at the same time. Magnetic drawing boards (black and white or
color) with a thin diameter stylus and a few stamps in common shapes (e.g., triangle, square, and
circle) are appropriate for this age group.
4 Through 5 Years
At 4 and 5 years of age, children’s art starts to resemble what it is meant to represent. Four-year-
olds can add as many as seven parts to the outline of a human figure. They can string small beads
and can copy bead order when stringing beads. They can cut along a line with scissors, and can
copy squares, divided rectangles, ladder designs, letters, and numbers. As children approach the
age of 5, their art is better defined and can represent either reality or fantasy. They are highly
attracted by materials that create interesting effects and are tactually stimulating. Their drawings
become more realistic looking and more elaborate, including more details than ever before. They
can copy circles, crosses, divided rectangles, triangles, and letters and numbers. Five-year-olds
can now add nine parts to a human form.
Suitable materials are appropriately sized to children’s grips, and are lightweight but sturdy.
Four- and five-year-old children enjoy using standard-sized crayons, markers, brushes, and art
and construction paper of all sizes. They also can use coloring books and follow the outlines
when using standard-sized crayons. Non-toxic tempera, finger, and watercolor paints work well
for children in this age group, as do easels. Now that they can use round-nosed scissors and non-
toxic glue or tape with skill, they can make collages and create scrapbooks. They can use pre-
gummed paper pieces, glitter, pieces of yarn, and small pom-poms in their creations. They can
manipulate clay and modeling dough, use craft sticks and plastic tools for the clay, and write or
draw on chalkboards with chalk. They can also string beads, complete simple sewing activities,
use simple miniature looms, and both stamps and non-toxic ink. At about 5 years of age, children
can begin to use thinner-diameter, adult-sized crayons and color pencils.
Media Play: Arts & Crafts
214
6 Through 8 Years
Children 6 through 8 years of age are most interested in experimenting with and exploring
through art. They find a high level of realism appealing and enjoy opportunities for arts and
crafts with various materials. They are still highly attracted by materials with which they can
produce complicated and interesting effects. Children about 8 years of age can follow directions
included in a kit to complete an activity. At this age, arts and crafts for children become more
adult-like, product-oriented, and mastery-oriented. Children become interested in craft projects
that were previously thought of as folk art or work-related crafts, such as simple woodworking or
sewing (with large needles). They become interested in photography and simple jewelry making,
like beadwork. They can now use color pencils, art chalk, pastels, water colors, sketch pads,
stencils, sharper scissors, all kinds of art papers, printing equipment, cameras, miniature looms,
plaster of Paris, papier-mâché, leather strips, and model-making, in addition to everything used
by younger children. Children also have the patience and fine motor skills in this age group to
use a loom properly, which requires them to lace a string of yarn through teeth on a loom.
Children can line up the yarn on the teeth and create a design. When children at younger ages
wrap yarn around the loom, they often disregard the importance of putting the yarn in the teeth
and are unable to complete the task. These children can begin to use looms with small loops for
weaving as well. Their fine motor skills allow them to put small loops onto a loom and arrange
them in an appropriate way to make bracelets and other items.
Suitable materials are appropriately sized to children’s grips, and are sturdy. Children in this age
group are most interested in materials that are open-ended; that is, materials that do not dictate to
children how their art should look. Early elementary-aged children enjoy using crayons, markers,
brushes, colored pencils, and art and construction paper of all sizes. Easels and tempera or
watercolor paints work well for children in this age group. They use scissors and non-toxic glue
or tape expertly, and can make collages and create scrapbooks. Stencils, pre-gummed paper
pieces, glitter, pieces of yarn, and small pom-poms are still popular art materials at this age. They
can manipulate clay and modeling dough (including self-hardening and polymer clays), use craft
sticks and plastic tools for clay, and engage in simple pottery activities. They can write or draw
on chalkboards with 6-through 8-year-olds can also string beads, complete simple sewing kits,
use miniature looms, and use stamps and non-toxic ink. Balloons are inappropriate without direct
Media Play: Arts & Crafts
215
supervision for children less than 8 years old because of the choking hazard. Children in this age
group can use kits that involve jewelry making, soap making, candle making, paper doll making,
and copper enameling, but they may be unable to complete the activities as planned until they are
closer to the age of 8 or 9 years. Children find other arts and craft activities, such as basketry,
block printing, bookbinding, carving, leather working, braiding, weaving, photography, and
flower pressing very enjoyable.
9 Through 12 Years
Children 9 through 12 years of age are ready for technical training in art, if they wish. They are
also more capable of engaging in detail-oriented art techniques. By this time, their fine motor
skills are approaching those of adults, so they can engage in activities that require more
meticulous work and attention. Their interests expand to include the activities listed above, and
arts and crafts, such as calligraphy, sketching, crocheting, embroidery, knitting, needlepoint,
puppetry, doll making, metalworking, mosaics, and ceramics. There is decreasing emphasis on
hazards because children in this age group are more capable of preventing injury to themselves,
as compared to younger children, and because involvement in the types of activities discussed
here sometimes cannot avoid the use of sharp instruments and tools. They can use machines and
tools, such as sewing machines, wood burners, screwdrivers, and pliers.
216
MEDIA PLAY: ARTS & CRAFTS
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts*
Appropriate for size of hand (large
crayons and markers)
Large sheets of paper
Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges
Number of Parts
Few
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Lightweight
Sturdy
Motor Skills Required
Grasping
Hand-eye coordination developing
Can put large crayons & markers to
paper
Color/Contrast*
High contrast
Cause & Effect*
A clear cause-and-effect relationship
Sensory Elements*
Visual
Manual
Level of Realism/Detail
217
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Like to explore objects manually &
orally
Can make marks on paper, but does
not actively scribble or draw
Examples of Products
Large, easy-to-grip crayons & markers
Large sheets of art & construction
paper
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
218
MEDIA PLAY: ARTS & CRAFTS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Appropriate for size of hand (large
crayons & markers) (cont’d)
Large sheets of paper (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Few (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Lightweight (cont’d)
Sturdy (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Grasping (cont’d)
Hand-eye coordination (cont’d)
Standing
Balancing
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Can move fingers independently of
each other
Color/Contrast*
High contrast (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
Can make color distinctions
Cause & Effect*
A clear cause-and-effect relationship
(cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Sensory Elements*
Visual (cont’d)
Manual (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
219
Relevant Play/Behavior
Like to explore objects manually &
orally (cont’d)
Likes to scribble
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Representational & symbolic play
emerges
More skillful at fine motor coordination
Behaviors are goal-directed
Need non-verbal means of expression
Can draw simple angles
Can draw what adults consider to be
non-representational drawings
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Representational & symbolic play
continues, & manifests in art
Continual improvement in fine motor
skill
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Can draw circular & vertical lines
Can copy circles & crosses
Can use blunt-end scissors
Can add 2-3 parts to human outline
Process of art is more important than
art product
Examples of Products
Large, easy-to-grip crayons & markers
(cont’d)
Large sheets of art & construction
paper (cont’d)
Easels for those who can stand
Spherical crayons
Animal shaped chunky markers
Pads with gel that record impressions
using a stylus or the child’s
hand/finger
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Approaching 24 months; can string
large beads on shoelace string
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Blunt-end scissors
Soft modeling clay or dough
Non-toxic finger paints
Pre-gummed sticky pads for large items
to be stuck to
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
220
MEDIA PLAY: ARTS & CRAFTS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Large, easy-to-grip crayons, markers,
& brushes
Various sizes of paper
-----------------------------------------
Adult-sized crayons, markers, color
pencils, & brushes at 5
Smaller beads at about 5
All sizes
-----------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
Various
-----------------------------------------
Number of Parts
Enough to provide a choice of
materials & colors
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Lightweight (cont’d)
Sturdy (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Can be of professional quality and
detail
Motor Skills Required
Improving hand-eye coordination
Can move fingers independently of
each other (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Uses adult grip
Good fine motor coordination
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Fine motor skills increasingly adult-
like
-----------------------------------------
Color/Contrast*
A variety of colors
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
A clear cause-and-effect relationship
(cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
Can understand delayed cause &
effect
-----------------------------------------
Sensory Elements*
Visual (cont’d)
Manual (cont’d)
Scented (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
High level of realism appeals to this
age group
-----------------------------------------
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
221
Relevant Play/Behavior
Repeat shapes & scribbles
Can string large beads
Can use pop beads as anticipated
Can cut, paste, & make collages
Likes to manipulate clay & dough
Can copy circle (cont’d)
Can copy square
Develops size perception
Art begins to resemble what it is
meant to represent
Can cut along a line
Can draw a human figure & add 7
parts to figure
Can copy square, divided rectangle,
ladder design, some letters &
numbers
Can thread small beads
5’s art is more well-defined, more
realistic-looking & elaborate
5’s can copy triangles as well
5’s can weave simple items
5’s can add 9 parts to human form
Experiment & explore through art
Attracted to materials that produce
complicated & interesting
effects
Prefer open-ended materials
Become interested in woodworking,
sewing (with large needle),
photography, simple jewelry-
making, pottery activities
8’s can complete kits independently
Art activities are more adult-like,
product-oriented, & mastery-
oriented
Ready for technical training
Engage in detail-oriented art
techniques
Examples of Products
Large crayons, markers, brushes
Various sizes, colors, types of paper
Finger & tempera paints
Easels (cont’d)
Non-toxic glue
Blunt-end scissors
Modeling clay or dough with molds
Pop beads
Large beads & shoestring (cont’d)
Chalk & chalkboard
Pre-gummed paper & stickers
Glitter, yarn, pom-poms
Boards with magnetic shavings
Coloring books with large simple
outlines
Smaller crayons, markers, brushes, &
color pencils at 5
All papers
-----------------------------------------
Watercolors
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Beads & string
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Tools for clay work
Simple sewing with plastic needle
Miniature looms with loops
Stamps & non-toxic ink pads
Coloring books
Crayons, markers, brushes, & color
pencils
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Pastels
-----------------------------------------
Various scissors
Self-hardening & polymer clay
Beading/jewelry kits
Soap, candle, basket kits
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Sewing kits, sewing with large needle
Camera & photography equipment
Yarn looms
-----------------------------------------
Printing equipment
Plaster of Paris, papier-mâché, &
pottery activities
Modeling kits
Balloons (8 years)
Leatherwork & tools
Carving
Book binding
Block printing
Flower pressing
All those for 6-9 Years
Calligraphy
Sketching
Crochet
Embroidery
Knitting
Needlepoint
Puppetry
Doll-making
Metal working
Mosaic
Ceramic
Sewing machines
Wood burners
Screwdrivers
Pliers
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
222
Media Play
223
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Music is an integral part of human life. Music and musical experiences are believed to enhance
children’s physical and psychological development through their creation of, responses to, and
interaction with music. The learning skills that are developed with musical instruments are
thought to transfer to other types of learning. It can teach children self-control through practice
and can build self-esteem. Musical and rhythm instruments can be appropriate for children of all
ages.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of musical instruments:
• Cause & Effect
• Materials
• Size of Parts
• Number of Parts
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of musical instruments are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with
these products.
Birth Through 3 Months
Children enjoy music at all ages. Musical instruments appropriate for children of this age range
are rattles, bells, and chimes that can be strapped to the wrist or ankle when the child is unable to
grasp them. Musical toys that make sounds when they are kicked are also suitable for this age.
As they approach 4 months of age, children can grasp small-scale tambourines, handheld rattles,
bells, and chimes. Appropriate musical instruments are small enough for the infant to handle,
have rounded edges, and are both washable and sturdy. They can be brightly colored with a high
degree of contrast to help children perceive them. Cause-and-effect relationships should be
simple (e.g., a bell rings when an arm is waved), and sensory elements should not be too loud,
Media Play: Musical Instruments
224
too bright, too sudden, or otherwise extreme. Rhythm instruments are most appropriate for this
age. Musical mobiles and gyms are also appropriate (see Exploratory and Practice Play:
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives for more on mobiles and gyms).
4 Through 7 Months
At this age, movements progress from reflexes to outwardly oriented movements. Most children
are now actively engaged with their environments, repeating actions that involve external
objects. Most children now actively handle toys. Mouthing and teething are also very
characteristic of this age group; although the time spent mouthing varies among individual
children. They can sit unsupported at around 6 months of age.
Appropriate musical instruments for children of this age range include rattles, bells, chimes, and
small-scale tambourines that fit in children’s grasps. They are small and light enough for the
infant to handle, have rounded edges, and are both washable and sturdy. They can be brightly
colored with a high degree of contrast to help children perceive the instruments. Cause-and-
effect relationships are simple (e.g., a rattle makes a noise when shaken), and sensory elements
are not too loud, too bright, too sudden, or otherwise extreme. Rhythm instruments are most
appropriate for this age. At around 5 months of age, musical mobiles and gyms are no longer
appropriate because children of this age can push up onto their hands and knees (see Exploratory
and Practice Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives). Children in this age group are also are
very interested in interactive toys and smart toys that have musical features (see Educational &
Academic Play).
8 Through 11 Months
Children in this age group are becoming increasingly mobile as they progress through scooting,
crawling, cruising, and walking. Their behaviors become more outwardly initiated and goal-
oriented. Because of this increase in physical development and an increase in cognitive
development, children around this age begin to understand simple cause-and-effect relationships.
The motor skills of grasping and shaking, combined with the cognitive skill of understanding
cause and effect, make musical instruments highly appealing for this age group. Children in this
Media Play: Musical Instruments
225
age range can hold two objects at once, but are unable to coordinate the different actions of each
appendage. They are practicing fine motor skills like grasping, pushing, pulling, squeezing,
patting, poking, and shaking, and can be provided with musical instruments that fit these
characteristics. Mouthing and teething are still very characteristic of this age group, although the
time spent mouthing varies among individual children.
Suitable musical instruments for this age group have characteristics similar to the previous
group. Mobiles are not appropriate. Musical instruments that are appropriate for children in this
age range include handheld rattles, bells, chimes, and small tambourines that will fit
appropriately in children’s grasps. Children in this age group are also very interested in
interactive toys and smart toys that have musical features (see the Educational & Academic Play
category).
12 Through 18 Months
Children from 12 through 18 months of age are increasingly curious and love to explore, traits
that are facilitated by their increasing walking skills. Because of this, children are beginning to
self-select toys, rather than play with the items put within their reach. Although they are
becoming more skilled at bipedal movement, they are still unsteady on their feet, and they
frequently lose their balance. They are working on fine motor coordination and are capable of
controlled grasping and releasing, pushing, pulling, squeezing, patting, poking, and shaking.
They can also twist, turn, slide, and crank instruments. They are even exploring more
expansively the world through all their senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling.
Musical developments include children moving their bodies to the music and playing with
musical instruments in functional/exploratory ways.
Musical instruments appropriate for children in this age range include handheld egg shakers,
rattles, bells, chimes, and small-scale tambourines that will fit appropriately into children’s
grasps. They are small and light enough for the toddler to handle, have rounded edges, and are
washable and sturdy. Cause-and-effect relationships should be simple, and sensory elements
should not be too loud or otherwise extreme. Rhythm instruments, such as xylophones, are
appropriate for this age because they provide an exciting cause-and-effect functionality and are
Media Play: Musical Instruments
226
easy to activate with limited fine motor skills. Children of this age are also very interested in
interactive toys and smart toys that have musical features, such as a plastic guitar activated by
button pressing, which is easier for children with limited fine motor skills to operate at this age
than a conventional guitar with strings (see also Educational & Academic Play). They can use
instruments or simple sets that they can use in functional/exploratory ways, such as pounding on
drums or bongos. At this age, children may be introduced to chunky whistles. They may blow
short bursts of air to generate sound on a whistle, or may mimicking a whistle sound with their
voice. These children are likely to suck in air as much as they are to blow it out.
19 Through 23 Months
Children from 19 through 23 months of age are still curious and love to explore.
Representational and symbolic thinking emerges during this time. This is also a time of great
physical activity as children gain new strengths and skills in their gross motor development.
They are becoming more confident and stable in walking, and are exploring other physical skills
like balancing, jumping, and running. Their fine motor skills are also becoming more skillful.
Social play is starting to emerge as children are more capable of communicating with each other
and beginning to play alongside each other. Their fine and gross motor coordination continues to
improve. Appropriate musical instruments for children in this age group are similar to those
described in the previous age group, and include instruments (or sets up to 6 pieces) that can be
used in functional/exploratory ways (e.g., pounding), such as drums or bongos. Children in this
age group are still learning to blow into a whistle to produce sound and are likely to mimic
sounds.
2 Years
Music is related to other cognitive skills for all children. For the 2-year-old child, music is
inseparable from movement, and children at this age react to music by moving their bodies and
parts of their bodies to music. Children are interested in the sounds different musical instruments
make, and they can perceive changes in volume and recognize simple melodies. Children of this
age like to sing phrases of songs and repeat their favorite songs often. They also enjoy rhythm
instruments, and because their manual dexterity is improving, a whole new range of instruments
Media Play: Musical Instruments
227
is appropriate for them. By this age, children have more interest in novelty horns (without
functional buttons) and whistles, and are more capable of producing longer and stronger bursts of
air. Appropriate musical instruments are small and light enough for the toddler to handle (plastic
or wood), have rounded edges, are brightly colored, and washable and sturdy. Children in this
age group can use music sets with up to a dozen pieces. As they approach 30 months of age, they
are increasingly aware of musical instruments featuring licensed characters, which starts to play
a role in their preferences and enjoyment. Sensory elements that are too loud, bright, or
otherwise extreme are inappropriate. The cause-and-effect relationships should be simple.
Rhythm instruments are most appropriate for this age. They can also effectively use shakers of
all kinds, tambourines, bells, drums and bongos, blocks (by scraping and tapping), triangles, and
rhythm sticks.
3 Years
Three-year-old children learn through movement and have increased gross and fine motor skills.
They can shake and tap instruments, and they keep faster tempos better than slow ones. They can
sense the mood of musical pieces, can sing simple songs on their own key because of their
limited vocal range, and they like to repeat songs.
Appropriate musical instruments are properly sized for the 3-year-old preschooler to handle,
have rounded edges, and are sturdy. Multisensory elements and cause-and-effect relationships
are very appealing. Musical instruments that 3-year-olds can use effectively include shakers of
all kinds, tambourines, bells, drums and bongos, blocks (by scraping and tapping), triangles,
rhythm sticks, and novelty musical instruments such as horns (with up to three buttons). Children
at younger ages may have trouble using a multistep horn that involves blowing and pressing
buttons to change the tone. Additionally, children in this age group can use music sets with more
components (up to one dozen).
At age 3 years, children now have the cognitive skills needed to be able to follow along in a
symbol booklet, which tells them what keys to press on a piano. They are able to follow the
necessary steps to operate electronic drum pads, which allow the user to set the tempo first, and
then follow the beat. Children in younger age groups are able to beat on drums, but they may not
Media Play: Musical Instruments
228
have the cognitive skills needed to engage in the auxiliary functions, such as rhythm-setting,
which the electronic drum pad affords. Floor pianos also become appealing at this age, because
children have the cognitive skills needed to understand that the floor pad is supposed to be
stepped on to make individual notes. These children may use their feet to produce sound in an
exploratory fashion or for activating pre-recorded songs.
4 Through 5 Years
Four- and five-year-olds may begin taking music lessons. Four-year-olds can copy simple
rhythmic patterns, play steady beats while moving or marching, sing with others, imitate simple
songs, and play an instrument along with simple music. Most 5-year-olds use instruments
imaginatively, can recognize melody and reproduce it, have a more extensive vocabulary, can
recite words rhythmically, maintain a steady beat while moving, express musical ideas in many
different ways, and are involved in more musical improvisation. However, they cannot perform
harmony yet. Children of this age also appreciate a high level of realism.
Suitable musical instruments are properly sized for the 4- and 5-year-old child to handle, have
rounded edges, and are sturdy. Multisensory elements and cause-and-effect relationships are very
appealing. Children this age also prefer adult-quality instruments over instruments made of
plastic. Musical instruments (often packaged together as a set with 10 to 20 components) can be
used effectively by children in this age group and include shakers of all kinds, maracas,
castanets, tambourines, bells, drums and bongos, blocks (by scraping and tapping), triangles,
kazoos, harmonicas, rhythm sticks, novelty musical instruments, cymbals, xylophones,
keyboards, and pianos. Small guitars or ukuleles become appealing at this age because children
this age have the fine motor skills to strum the strings properly, as well as possess the
coordination needed to cradle the instrument properly in their arms while playing it. Children of
this age also enjoy wind-up music boxes, mp3s, and CDs (see Technology Play: Audiovisual
Equipment).
Media Play: Musical Instruments
229
6 Through 8 Years
Children in the early elementary years from 6 through 8 years old have developed rhythmic
discrimination, are better at remembering melodies than younger children, can read music when
instructed, prefer to play real instruments, show interest in formal music lessons, and can sing in
groups. At around 8 years of age, the ability to keep harmony develops, and they begin to create
musical forms through improvisation. Children of this age also appreciate a high level of realism.
Suitable musical instruments are appropriately sized for the 6- through 8-year-old elementary
school child to handle. Children this age prefer adult quality instruments. Musical instruments
that children in this age group can use effectively include shakers of all kinds, maracas,
castanets, tambourines, bells, drums and bongos, blocks (by scraping and tapping), triangles,
rhythm sticks, cymbals, xylophones, keyboards, and pianos. Accordions with two motions
(button pressing and pulling apart), are also mastered at this age. Younger children may not have
the combination of gross motor skills (pulling) and fine motor skills (button pressing) needed to
activate the accordion. Children are more skilled at using their feet to play songs on a floor
piano. They are also able to play more complicated instruments, such as the autoharp, ukulele,
flute, violin, horns, and the harmonica. Children of this age enjoy wind-up music boxes, mp3s,
and CD/DVDs (see also Technology Play: Audiovisual Equipment).
9 Through 12 Years
Children ages 9 years and up have developed rhythmic discrimination, are good at remembering
melodies, can generally read music well, prefer to play real instruments, can take formal music
lessons, can sing in groups, are continuing to improvise musically, and can keep harmony.
Children of this age prefer adult-quality instruments. Musical instruments that 9- through 12-
year-olds can use effectively include shakers of all kinds, maracas, castanets, tambourines, bells,
drums and bongos, blocks (by scraping and tapping), triangles, rhythm sticks, cymbals,
xylophones, keyboards, and pianos. They are also able to play more complicated instruments,
such as the autoharp, ukulele, flute, violin, horns, and the harmonica. Children of this age enjoy
wind-up music boxes, and CD/DVDs (see also Technology Play: Audiovisual Equipment).
230
MEDIA PLAY: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts*
Small enough for infant to handle, if
expected to be grasped
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts*
Few pieces or parts (<3)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Lightweight
Soft
Sturdy
Washable
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Reaching
Grasping
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Hand-eye coordination
Able to sit up unsupported around 6
months
Increased mobility (scooting, crawling,
cruising, walking)
Can grasp & shake
Practicing fine motor skills such as
grasping, pushing, pulling,
squeezing, patting, poking, &
shaking
Color/Contrast
Brightly-colored with high contrast
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
A simple, clear cause-and-effect
relationship
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Beginning to understand cause-and-
effect relationship
Sensory Elements
Auditory
Visual
Manual
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
231
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very
appealing
Enjoy music
Like to explore objects manually &
orally
Learn through reflexes
Able to reach & grasp around 3 mo.
At birth, focus is best about 8 inches
from face; by end of this period can
see several feet away
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Increasing interest in surroundings
Actively handles toys
Mouthing & teething
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Can hold 2 objects at once but cannot
coordinate between them
Examples of Products
Musical mobiles & gyms (see
Exploratory and Practice Play)
Wrist, ankle, & handheld rattles &
shakers
Wrist, ankle, & handheld bells
Wrist, ankle, & handheld chimes
Small, light tambourines
Instruments that makes sounds when
kicked
Mobiles (prior to 5 months)
Rattles & shakers
Bells
Chimes
Small, light tambourines
Musical interactive & smart toys (see
Educational & Academic Play:
Learning Products and Technology
Play: Smart Toys & Educational
Software)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
232
MEDIA PLAY: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts*
Small enough for a toddler to handle
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Number of Parts*
Few pieces or parts (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Lightweight (cont’d)
Soft (cont’d)
Sturdy (cont’d)
Washable (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Increasingly skilled at walking
Working on fine motor coordination
(controlled grasping & releasing,
pushing, pulling, squeezing,
patting, poking, & shaking, twisting,
turning, sliding, & cranking)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Can move fingers independently of
each other
Color/Contrast
High contrast (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
All colors
Cause & Effect*
A clear cause-and-effect relationship
(cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
Auditory (cont’d)
Visual (cont’d)
Manual (cont’d)
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
233
Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very
appealing
Likes to explore objects manually &
orally (cont’d)
Increasingly curious & love to explore
Beginning to self-select toys
Uses all senses to explore the world:
seeing, hearing, touching, tasting,
& smelling
Functional/exploratory play with musical
instruments
Can move bodies to music
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Can self-select toys
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Music is related to other cognitive skills
Music is inseparable from movement
Interested in the sounds different
musical instruments make
Can perceive changes in volume
Can recognize simple melodies
Can sing phrases of songs
-------------------------------------------------
Repeats favorite songs
Enjoys rhythm instruments
Examples of Products
Rattles & shakers(cont’d)
Bells (cont’d)
Chimes (cont’d)
Small, light tambourines (cont’d)
Musical interactive & smart toys
activated by button pressing such
as a guitar (see Educational &
Academic Play: Learning Products
and Technology Play: Smart Toys
& Educational Software) (cont’d)
Drums
Bongos
Xylophones
Simple music sets
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Tambourines
Blocks (scraping and tapping)
Triangles
Rhythm sticks
Novelty musical instruments (including
multistep horns and chunky
whistles)
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
234
MEDIA PLAY: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts*
Sized for the preschooler to handle
All except for very large portable
instruments
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
All sizes
-----------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
Various
-----------------------------------------
Number of Parts*
Many
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Lightweight (cont’d)
Sturdy (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Prefers adult-quality instruments
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Improving hand-eye coordination
Can move fingers independently of
each other (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
Uses adult grip
Good fine motor coordination
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Fine motor skills increasingly adult-
like
Color/Contrast
A variety of colors
-----------------------------------------
Cause & Effect*
A clear cause-and-effect
relationship (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
Can understand delayed cause &
effect
-----------------------------------------
Sensory Elements
Auditory (cont’d)
Visual (cont’d)
Manual (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Prefers high level of realism
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
235
Relevant Play/Behavior
Learns through movement
Can shake & tap instruments
Keeps faster tempos better
Can discern affective mood of
musical pieces
Limited vocal range
Can sing simple songs on own key
Likes to repeat songs
May begin taking music lessons
Can coordinate large and small
muscle movements
Can copy simple rhythmic patterns
Can play steady beats while
moving or marching
Can sing with others
Can imitate simple songs
Can play instrument along with
simple music
5’s can use instruments
imaginatively
5’s can recognize melody &
reproduce it
5’s have more vocabulary
5’s can recite words rhythmically
5’s can maintain steady beat while
moving
5’s can express musical ideas in
many different ways
5’s are involved in more
improvisation
5’s cannot perform harmony yet
Rhythmic discrimination
Better at remembering melodies
than younger children
Can read music
Play real instruments
Show interest in formal music
lessons
Can sing in groups
By 8 years, create musical forms
through improvisation
At around 8 years, the ability to
keep harmony develops
-------------------------------------------
Good at remembering melodies
Can read music well
-------------------------------------------
Can take formal music lessons
Can sing in groups
Musical improvisation continues
Able to keep harmony
Examples of Products
Rattles & shakers (cont’d)
Bells (cont’d)
Chimes (cont’d)
Small, light tambourines (cont’d)
Musical interactive & smart toys
(see Educational & Academic
Play: Learning Products and
Technology Play: Smart Toys
& Educational Software)
(cont’d)
Drums (cont’d)
Bongos (cont’d)
Xylophones (cont’d)
Tambourines (cont’d)
Blocks (scraping & tapping)
(cont’d)
Triangles (cont’d)
Rhythm sticks (cont’d)
Novelty musical instruments
(including horns & whistles
with buttons) (cont’d)
Electronic drum pads
All examples in previous age group
Cymbals
Keyboards
Pianos
Wind up music boxes
CD/DVDs, mp3s, streaming videos
(see Technology Play:
Audiovisual Equipment)
Kazoos
Harmonicas
Pianos with symbol booklets with
instructions for what keys to
press
Ukuleles
Floor pianos
Accordions
All examples in previous age group
Autoharp
Flute
Violin
Horns
All examples in previous age group
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
236
237
EDUCATIONAL & ACADEMIC PLAY
Children’s cognitive development may be fostered through various media and particular toys that
are provided for children’s play with the goal of cognitive gain. Educational and academic play
is seen with books, science kits, and press and guess games. Toys designed for this type of play
require specific levels of knowledge and motor skill, so most toys in this category are
recommended for children 19 months and older. However, some parents may believe their
children are advanced, or may desire to give their children a “head start” over others.
Consequently, educational and academic toys might be given to children at younger ages than
described in the Age Determination Guidelines, even if they are inappropriate for children in this
age group for developmental or safety reasons.
Books (p. 239)
• ABC & number
• Chapter
• Cloth- or plastic-covered
• Coloring
• Information
• Interactive
• Nursery rhymes
• Picture
• Pop-up
• Rhyming
• Simple stories
• Tactile
• Vocabulary
Learning Products (p. 253)
• Abacuses
• Architecture kits
• Binoculars
• Cameras
• Chemistry sets
• Circuit boards
• Colors & shapes
• Electronic teacher toys
• Felt play boards
• Flashcards
• Machine building kits
• Magnetic letters & numbers
• Microscopes
• Press & guess toys
• Science sets
• Telescopes
• Wipe-off educational mats
Educational & Academic Play
238
Educational & Academic Play
239
BOOKS
Research strongly indicates that a child’s success in reading largely hinges on early experiences
with literature, particularly during preschool years at home and the first few years of school.
Unless positive attitudes toward reading are developed during the early years, a child is unlikely
to grow into an adult who enjoys reading.
Books are appropriate for children of most ages, but they are not used independently by children
as sources of information or stories until they are around the age of 19 months. Before that,
books serve as objects in the environment that are likely to be handled roughly (i.e., mouthed,
carried, ripped), or used by someone else to read them a story. Recent research indicates that
reading to children as early as 1 month old can be beneficial to their auditory perception skills,
emotional balance, and language comprehension and development. Some studies even encourage
in-utero reading. Reading is a skill that comes to fruition around the ages of 5 to 7 years; so until
that time, children interact with picture books by visually exploring the details of illustrations.
They are not constrained by the written words, often making sounds that correspond to the
pictures, naming objects, and inventing stories.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of books:
• Number of Parts (pages)
• Materials (plastic/foam, cloth, cardboard, paper)
• Size of Parts
• Sensory Elements
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Color/Contrast
The order of the characteristics listed above does not necessarily indicate priority, because this
can change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the
characteristics of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This
includes a description of what types of books are appropriate, and how a particular age group
plays with books. These descriptions, however, do not apply to books read to children by
Educational & Academic Play: Books
240
parents, teachers, or older peers because in those cases, the child is not handling the book or
reading on their own. These descriptions apply only to the interactions between children and
books.
Birth Through 3 Months
Emerging research encourages parents to talk and to read to their children, even in-utero.
However, children ages birth through 3 months lack the physical, cognitive, and visual abilities
necessary for interacting with books.
4 Through 7 Months
At this age, children’s movements are progressing from involuntary reflexes to deliberate
outwardly oriented movements. As the children mature, grasping, reaching, shaking, and pulling
become ways in which they can interact with the environment. Grasping is mastered around 6
months. Because of children’s emerging abilities, caregivers can give children ages 4 through 7
months of age books. Appropriate books have relatively few pages (no more than five) that are
easy to turn, portray a simple, familiar image on each page, and have bright colors and high
visual contrasts. Children use visual skills to engage in play. Research studies indicate that
children prefer yellow and red, to blue and green, and favor patterns rather than solids by 3
months of age. Therefore, when they are given books by 4 months old, books that have bright
yellow and red pictures with high visual contrasts and patterns, these books are likely to be more
appealing to children in this age group. Infants can handle books that are small (no more than
around 4 to 8 inches in any direction) and light, yet sturdy. Once a book is grasped, it is likely to
be mouthed immediately. Therefore, books for children in this age group are usually made to
endure wetness without tearing or falling apart, such as books made from cloth or non-toxic
plastic. Cloth and light plastic books are suitable for children 6 months and older; cardboard may
be too heavy and unwieldy for children in this age group. Motor skills are crude at this age; so
books provided for the child must be large enough for them to grasp easily (around 4 to 8
inches). Soft books will make any erratic arm motions safer for their eyes and faces.
Educational & Academic Play: Books
241
8 Through 11 Months
The behaviors of 8- through 11-month-olds become more deliberately outwardly oriented, and
fine motor skills are becoming more controlled. Children at this age can easily turn pages in
books, but their lack of motor control may result in torn pages. This age brings the cognitive
ability to understand simple cause-and-effect relationships, and this makes interactive books
highly appealing. Books with things to lift, open, or slide are appealing and cognitively
stimulating. Children in this age group can handle books that are less than 6 or 8 inches in any
direction, are lightweight, yet sturdy, and are washable, with no more than five easily turned
pages. The pictures in these books are simple and clear, with bright colors and high contrast. The
pictures typically represent familiar objects, animals, or people to aid language development; and
each page includes only one or a few objects. Cloth and light plastic books are suitable for
children in this age bracket, but cardboard may be too heavy and unwieldy.
12 Through 18 Months
Children’s emerging interests in novelty and exploration characterize the 12- through 18-month
period. Tactile books, much like the cause/effect books described above, are appealing for this
age group because children can interact with the book in ways not possible with regular books.
This is also a time of growing language capabilities; consequently, books that have rhymes,
rhythm, and repetition are suitable for aiding in their developing skills. Children in this age
group enjoy looking at books as a solitary activity, and will do so frequently given the
opportunity. Cardboard, fabric, and non-toxic plastic are appropriate materials for books. They
are colorful and contain simple pictures of things the child recognizes from the world around
them, such as cats, dogs, and birds. Picture/vocabulary books, simple picture/story books,
nursery rhyme books, and simple ABC and number books are pleasing to children. As children’s
one-word utterances expand during this age group, they will enjoy pointing to these familiar
objects in books and labeling them aloud. Books containing five to seven pages are manageable
for this age group.
Educational & Academic Play: Books
242
19 Through 23 Months
During this period, the child develops concepts of how to care for books. They can turn pages
carefully and work to avoid tearing them. The child realizes that the book has a front and back,
and that pictures have a top and a bottom. Cognitive abilities are developed to the point that they
can understand that the pictures tell a story and that what the adult is doing is called “reading.”
They now regularly name and point to familiar objects in books, and particularly enjoy listening
to nursery rhymes and repeating them with adults. Therefore, picture books with simple stories,
nursery rhymes, ABCs, and number books are appropriate. By around 19 months, children are
ready for “touch me” and other tactile books, and books with heavy paper pages. Books
containing 7 to 10 pages are appropriate.
2 Years
Children at this age love to hear the same story read repeatedly. They memorize the stories and
then will use them to “read” the story to themselves later. Predictable story lines are appropriate
because they lend themselves easily to the memorization tendency the children have toward
stories. By age 30 months, they begin to ask questions about what is being read to them. Two-
year-olds enjoy simple pictures with few details and clear color, and are particularly interested in
rhymes and repetition. Children in this age group like having and looking at their own books, and
now can use books with 10 to 12 pages. Pop-up and “dress me” books are highly fascinating with
this age group as well. Large, colorful pictures and story lines of familiar objects and events are
appropriate. Children this age also enjoy books with pictures hidden behind windows or doors,
and these books reinforce object permanence comprehension. By age 2, children begin to show
an awareness of print; they now recognize that something else appears on the page with the
pictures.
3 Years
Three-year-old children enjoy listening to stories that pertain to events with which they are
familiar. Their expanding attention span—now up to about 20 minutes—allows them to enjoy
hearing the same story multiple times, but they insist on hearing it the same way each time. If
Educational & Academic Play: Books
243
there is any deviation from the story line, they will correct the reader. They want to respond to
questions about the stories, offer comments and observations, and ask “why” questions.
Humor is becoming more refined, so wildly silly stories are appealing. Children in this age group
delight in jokes, humorous stories, nonsense rhymes, tall tales, and stories about adventures, the
here and now, information, animals—particularly animals that act like people—and places like
the zoo, fire station, and park. They prefer stories that involve familiar objects like telephones,
trucks, and dogs, to help them assimilate their own experiences. They like complex illustrations
rich with detail. They enjoy fantasy stories, even though the lines between life and fantasy are
still fuzzy for this age group. The characters in the stories are interpreted as real, and the events
in the story may make them feel happy, sad, or angry. Three-year-olds enjoy making up their
own stories and enjoy making books with adults. They are interested in violent stories that
include death, killing, and objects that crash, fall down, or break. They tell stories describing
how they beat up the bad guy that came into their house, with them emerging as the hero. Ghosts
and witches are also frequently present in their stories.
Children of this age also tend to mark in books. Because of this, coloring books or other books in
which marking is acceptable may be introduced. For personal interactions with books,
appropriate attributes include: more complicated illustrations than present in books for 2-year-
old children, more pages (10 to 15), and a few more words on each page. Children of this age are
generally farsighted and are still developing their binocular vision. Therefore, children in this age
group will find larger print easier to read than smaller print.
4 Through 5 Years
Children 4 and 5 years old enjoy hearing stories time and time again. Topics of great interest
include “here and now” themes, reality-based story lines, poetry, comics, seasonal/holiday
stories, and animals with human traits. Dramatic play is a high-frequency behavior in these
years, and it emerges in their literacy activities. They enjoy acting out their favorite stories or
making up ones with their peers. This age group finds stories that teach them something, like
new words and their meanings, to be valuable. Exaggerated and fantasy stories are not valued as
much at this age because those stories are not “true.”
Educational & Academic Play: Books
244
Like 3-year-olds, children of this age generally are farsighted and are still developing their
binocular vision. Therefore, larger print is more appropriate than smaller print in books. Literacy
skills are emerging as children enter preschool and kindergarten during these years. Books that
contain simple phonetic structure words and two to four sentences per page allow children to
practice their reading with success and relatively little frustration. About 10 pages are sufficient
for beginning literacy books.
6 Through 8 Years
Page numbers, size of books, and book contents gradually become more complex as the child’s
reading fluency increases. During these years, children learn to read with increasing fluency, and
develop individual reading habits and preferences. Once literacy skills are acquired and
mastered, children set their own pace for reading.
Children from 6 through 8 years have different topic interests in the stories they choose.
Individual literacy skills are becoming more frequent among children of this age bracket, and
they derive great pleasure in choosing their own books from library stacks, although they still
enjoy being read to by an adult. Some topics enjoyed in the preschool years are still enjoyed by
children over 6 years, like poetry and comics; but children in this age group have a new interest
in fantasy, which largely dominates over the pleasure of reading about reality. Stories about good
magic, heroes, myths, legends, and fairy tales are popular with 6- and 7-year-olds. They enjoy
stories about reality, if they are sensational, dramatic, or funny. They also enjoy non-fiction
books about children, nature, science, and the Earth’s elements.
Once children in this age group reach about 8-years-old, they have become more capable of
navigating components of more complex books, like the table of contents, index, and glossary.
Eight- and nine-year-olds are interested in books about travel, adventure, geography, and ancient
times; thus, they find pleasure in stories about people who live far away, or who lived long ago.
Topics that surround humanity, such as situational humor, biographies, folk tales, and legends,
are highly appealing to children of this age. Mystical elements, like superstition and luck,
become more favorable to read about than stories of magic. Comics and humor continue to be
appealing.
Educational & Academic Play: Books
245
9 Through 12 Years
By ages 9 and 10, most children have a favorite “something” that they prefer to read. Some
children may prefer reading about a particular animal, such as horses or dolphins, while other
children may be interested in a particular author, books related to a specific television or movie
series, or a specific genre of book, like westerns, romances, and mysteries. Regardless of their
preference, which may be not to read at all, the significant point is individual taste. Books for
this age group largely resemble adult books, typically being made up of chapters and more than
50 pages. Smaller books are deemed childish, boring, or stupid.
The subject-interest guidelines below are general and may not reflect all individual preferences.
Popular topics for ages 10 through 12 include:
• Adventure – exploration, frontier life, pirate and sailing stories, westerns, pioneers
• Fantasy – Greek and Roman myths, but not fairy tales
• Biography and historical fiction – sports figures, pirates, cowboys, explorers
• Mysteries – detectives, action/excitement, suspense, but without horror and murder
• Westerns – good guy wearing white hat always saves the day
• Sports – stories of school athletics, emphasis on teamwork and fair play
• Animal stories – information on both wild and domestic animals, but not fantasy
• Scientific discovery – lives of inventors and their discoveries
• Information and how-to-books
• Media-based – stories tied to characters seen on television shows, movies, or videos.
246
EDUCATIONAL & ACADEMIC PLAY: BOOKS
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts*
Easy to grasp (4-8 inches); no more
than 6 or 8 inches in any direction
-------------------------------------------------
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts*
No more than 5 pages
-------------------------------------------------
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Light but sturdy
Washable; can endure wetness without
tearing or falling apart
Cloth & light plastic
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Grasping & page turning
-------------------------------------------------
Fine motor skills are becoming more
controlled so turning pages in a
book is a task handled with ease
Color/Contrast*
Bright yellow & red pictures
Pictures with high visual contrasts &
patterns
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Understand simple cause-and-effect
relationships, which makes
interactive books appealing. Books
with things to lift, open, or slide are
attractive & cognitively stimulating
Sensory Elements
247
Level of Realism/Detail
Pictures are simple & clear; they
represent familiar objects, animals,
or people
-------------------------------------------------
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Lack physical, cognitive, & visual
abilities necessary for interacting
with books
Movements progressing to deliberate
outwardly oriented movements,
such as reaching, grasping,
shaking, & pulling
Use visual skills to engage in play
Color receptors present; prefers red,
yellow, & patterns
Sucking reflex
Crude motor skills; erratic arm motions
-------------------------------------------------
Understand simple cause-and-effect
relationships
Controlled fine motor skills
Examples of Products
Not appropriate
Plastic-coated foam books
Cloth books
Simple picture books
Nursery rhymes
Simple ABC and number books
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Interactive books
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
248
EDUCATIONAL & ACADEMIC PLAY: BOOKS
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts*
Books containing 5-7 pages
Books containing 7-10 pages
Books containing 10-12 pages
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Books made from cardboard, fabric, or
plastic
-------------------------------------------------
Heavy paper pages
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required
Page turning; child has the fine motor
skills to perform this task
Turns pages carefully; works to not tear
them
-------------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast*
Colorful pictures
-------------------------------------------------
Large, colorful pictures with few details
& clear color
Cause & Effect*
Interactive books
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
“Dress Me” books are highly fascinating
Sensory Elements*
Tactile books with which the child can
interact & explore are appealing
-------------------------------------------------
“Touch Me” books
Enjoy books with pictures hidden
behind windows or doors
-------------------------------------------------
Pop-Up Books
Level of Realism/Detail
Pictures are simple & of things the child
recognizes
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Licensed theme
249
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior
Emerging interests in novelty &
exploration
Growing language capabilities
Looking at books as a solitary activity is
a high frequency behavior
No notice is given to print
Develops concepts of good care of
books
Realizes books have a front & back and
that pictures have a top & bottom
Understand that pictures tell a story &
that the adult is “reading”
Regularly name & point to familiar
objects in books
Enjoy listening to nursery rhymes &
repeating them with adults
Love to hear same story over & over
Memorize stories to repeat later
Ask questions about the story
Enjoy simple pictures with few details
They like having & looking at their own
books
-------------------------------------------------
Enjoy pop-up books & books with
pictures hidden behind windows &
doors
Show an awareness of print (something
else on the page with the pictures)
Examples of Products
Tactile books; interactive books
Books that have rhymes, rhythm, &
repetition
Picture books
Simple vocabulary/story books
Nursery rhymes
Simple ABC and number books
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
“Touch Me” books
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Predictable stories
Pop-up books
“Dress Me” books
Hidden picture books
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
250
EDUCATIONAL & ACADEMIC PLAY: BOOKS
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts*
10-15 pages
About 10 pages for literacy-
development books
Increase according to child’s
literacy abilities &
preferences in books
-----------------------------------
Largely resemble adult-type
books, made up of
chapters, about 50 pages
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Motor Skills Required
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements*
Binocular vision is still
developing & children are
generally farsighted, so
larger print is more
appropriate.
-----------------------------------
Standard/normal-sized print
-----------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail*
Prefer complex illustrations
rich with detail
-----------------------------------
By age 8, able to use table of
contents, index, &
glossary
-----------------------------------
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
251
Relevant Play/Behavior
Enjoy stories about familiar
events
Want to hear stories multiple
times, same way each
time
Want to answer questions,
share comments, ask why
Humor becoming refined; like
fantasy
Like complex illustrations;
tendency to mark in
books
Generally farsighted;
developing binocular
vision
Enjoy making up own stories
Enjoy acting out stories
-----------------------------------
Prefer true, reality-based
stories to fantasy
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Different topic interests in
books
Literacy skills more frequently
found in children
Derive great pleasure in
choosing books from
library
Enjoy being read to by an
adult
By age 8, ability to navigate
table of contents, index, &
glossary
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
By age 10, most have a
favorite “something” about
which they prefer to read
May prefer to not read at all
Small books are seen as
childish
Examples of Products
Enjoy topics of jokes, tall tales,
animals that act like
humans, adventures, the
here & now, information,
places, & fantasy.
Wildly silly stories, humorous
stories, & nonsense
rhymes
Picture books
Predictable books
Nursery rhymes
Coloring books with large
simple outlines
Self-created story books
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Coloring books
Also enjoy topics of here-and-
now themes, reality-
based story lines, poetry,
comics, seasonal/holiday
stories, and animals with
human traits.
Information stories that teach
new concepts like words
& meanings.
Enjoy topics of: poetry,
comics, fantasy, heroes,
fairy tales, legends, good
magic, myths, children,
nature,
sensational/dramatic/
funny stories of reality,
Earth elements,
superstition & luck.
Prefer information books,
particularly science.
8-9-year-olds enjoy books on
geography, travel,
adventure, & ancient
past.
Books that tell about humanity,
such as situational humor,
biographies, folk tales &
legends.
Chapter books &
adolescent/juvenile
novels
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
-----------------------------------
Also enjoy topics of:
adventure, sports,
scientific discovery,
media-based stories,
how-to books
Series books to continue
child’s favorite
“something” to read
about: animal, author,
TV/movie, genre, etc.
-----------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
252
Educational & Academic Play
253
LEARNING PRODUCTS
Cognitive abilities, those higher-order mental processes, like reasoning and problem solving,
through which humans try to understand the world, are present at birth. Cognitive activity is
particularly high with young children who are learning all-new information. Cognition is gained
through sensory experiences with the environment first, then later through abstract reasoning and
thought. However, just because learning occurs as early as birth, learning products are not
necessarily appropriate for newborn children. Learning products have anticipated uses, specific
goals, and particular types of learning objectives. Thus, learning products are appropriate only
for older children who are cognitively ready for such elements of play.
Children do not use learning products for true learning (i.e., as tools for gaining information or
strengthening cognitive skills) on an independent level until they are around the age of 2 to 3
years. For example, “learning products” are more appropriately considered “exploratory toys” or
“activity toys,” and they mainly serve as objects with which children can learn about their
senses, develop their motor skills, and learn about cause and effect (see Exploratory and Practice
Play: Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives). Therefore, giving a true learning product to children
younger than 2 years of age is often inappropriate because children of that age lack the physical,
cognitive, and visual abilities necessary for interacting with the product in most anticipated
ways. Therefore, discussion for this subcategory begins with age 2 years. Computer learning
software/applications are not included in this subcategory; these and other educational software
topics are discussed in the next subcategory, Smart Toys & Educational Software.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of learning products:
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Educational
• Materials
The order of these characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can change
with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics of
these products and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a
Educational & Academic Play: Learning Products
254
description of what types of learning products are appropriate and how a particular age group
plays with these products.
2 Years
Two-year-olds are cognitively and physically capable of interacting with simple learning
products. They have developed the ability to remember past events up to a day, to concentrate
and focus on one task for a limited time, and to attend to as many as three directions at once. The
cause-and-effect relationships they began to understand at 12 months are now fully developed, so
toys using this skill are engaging. Children in this age group can use four- or five-word
sentences. They can recognize and identify almost all common objects and pictures, and enjoy
matching or naming objects and shapes. Activities like these strengthen their visual
discrimination skills. They also can understand the physical relationships between objects, such
as knowing that something is “on” or “under” another object. The purpose of numbers in
counting objects is starting to become understood, so they can now understand the concept of
“two.” Cognitively, the early math skill of ordering by size has developed (it emerges around 19
months of age), and by 2, children can readily sort and order nesting cups in a meaningful way.
This is different from previous age groups, which may have used the cups out of order to build or
stack. Children in this age group are also beginning to understand simple time concepts, such as
knowing that one thing comes after another. Asking questions, generally in the form of “why,” is
a high-frequency behavior for this age group. Due to advances in cognitive development that
allow for symbolic connections, simple electronic-teacher and other learning products that teach
colors, shapes, animals, letters and sounds, and numbers are suitable. For example, children in
this age group may engage in simple learning with a stationary wheeled toy that is activated by
buttons or spun by a child’s hand.
3 Years
Like 2-year-olds, 3-year-olds often ask “why” things are as they are. They have mastered some
basic rules of grammar and can speak in sentences of five or six words. They can name most
familiar objects and now understand the concepts of “same” and “different.” They can correctly
Educational & Academic Play: Learning Products
255
name some colors. Children in this age group understand the concept of counting and may know
a few numbers. Suitable learning products teach colors, shapes, letters and sounds, and numbers.
4 Through 5 Years
Preschool children are ready for learning products and all the cognitive goals they bring. Literacy
skills are beginning to emerge around 5 years. Children in this age group understand the way in
which the toy should be used, can decipher the meanings of the words used (if the learning toy is
electronic), and know how to interact with the toy. Learning products that pertain to various
domains of knowledge are appropriate: colors, letter and sound recognition, letter writing,
number identification, counting, matching quantities to numerals, shapes, comparison,
directionality (concepts such as back/front, over/under, and in/on) and scientific thought, such as
space or biology. Preschool children can mentally work through problems and questions and
enjoy practicing their intellectual abilities and acquiring facts. Fine motor skills are well
developed, so small pieces present relatively little challenge.
Appropriate learning products for the preschool child include toys that teach colors and shapes,
and simple letter and number concepts. For example, alphabet magnets and abacuses are
appropriate. At this age, children will often search for the first letter of their name, or if they
have practiced, may be able to spell their own name with alphabet magnets. At this age, children
have the cognitive skills to enjoy counting and will slowly move beads on an abacus to practice
numbers. At any younger age, children look at an abacus as a bead toy or maze (something that
should be manipulated rather than counted). They also enjoy science materials, such as magnets,
color-mixing equipment, magnifying glasses, flashlights, prisms, thermometers, scales,
stethoscopes, speedometers, pedometers, compasses, models of the solar system, rock/shell
collections or kits, animal habitats, telescopes, binoculars, see-through clocks with visible gears,
simple calculators, alphabet ink stamps, and functioning toy keyboards. Science experiments
with a few steps are manageable at this age group, as children are able to follow along with
directions starting in this age group. Cameras with a viewfinder function can also be used
properly at this age. They can use introductory microscopes with focus-free, dual lenses and
large plates for viewing objects (no slides), as well as toys that resemble a microscope for
viewing nature scenes and listening to science lessons. Looking through the viewfinder and
Educational & Academic Play: Learning Products
256
pointing out objects is appealing. At younger ages, children lack the cognitive skills to
understand which side of the camera is the proper side to look through.
6 Through 8 Years
Learning products for elementary-age children are very much the same as those for preschoolers.
The only difference is the level of complexity. Elementary-age children, particularly upper
elementary, find realistic-looking learning products more appealing than those that look like
children’s toys. They prefer to interact with real-world objects, rather than plastic replicas.
Children in this age group are ready for skill-specific toys, rather than those that focus on broad
concepts used by the preschoolers. Literacy is an emerging skill during these years; so toys that
reinforce reading are appropriate. At age 6, children are still establishing the foundation of
reading; by age 8 and 9, most are reading fluently and reading for content (see Educational &
Academic Play: Books). Growing math skills include simple addition and subtraction in the early
grades, and multiplication, division, and fractions in the later grades.
Children in this age group can use more sophisticated science and chemistry sets, microscopes
(with slides and dissecting accessories), telescopes, and binoculars. They are interested in their
own anatomy and elements in the world, so scientific exploration sets that allow dissecting and
examining slides are highly attractive. Adult supervision is warranted, depending on the child,
the type of equipment, and the particular use of the equipment (such as sharp edges/blades or
chemicals in science sets). They may also find toys that focus on astronomy and the solar system,
geography, or history interesting, such as educational mats with wipe-off crayons. Children at
younger ages may only use mats with wipe-off crayons as coloring spaces rather than to absorb
the content.
9 Through 12 Years
Skills that were being introduced in the prior age group are largely mastered by ages 9 through
12. Most children can read fluently, add, subtract, multiply, and divide. Their skills are
approaching adult levels with increasing frequency. Nine-year-olds are realistic, able to plan,
responsible, self-conscious, and competitive. They are interested in things beyond their
Educational & Academic Play: Learning Products
257
environment, like people’s biographies, ancient times, and other cultures. In addition, they are
capable of independent, critical thinking. Similarly, 10-year-olds enjoy learning new things and
memorizing facts. During this time, they begin to establish definite preferences for subject matter
and reading material, largely due to subjects being explored more in-depth at school. By age 11,
definite preferences emerge for some school subjects over others. This trend continues through
age 12, when their thinking is more adult-like. Abilities to generalize and theorize are present, as
are abilities to conduct scientific experiments.
In general, materials that were appropriate for 6- through 8-year-olds remain appropriate for 9-
through 12-year-olds. Realistic items are preferred over those that resemble toys. Standard
calculators are acceptable.
258
EDUCATIONAL & ACADEMIC PLAY: LEARNING PRODUCTS
Product Characteristics
2 Years
3 Years
Size of Parts
Small enough to handle, if expected to be grasped
Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Lightweight
Sturdy
Washable
Motor Skills Required
Can push buttons
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Visual
Manual
Auditory
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
259
Educational*
Matching colors, shapes, & pictures
Naming objects, shapes, & pictures
Basic physical & temporal relationships between objects
Basic counting
Matching colors, shapes, & pictures (cont’d)
Naming objects, shapes, pictures, & colors
Basic rules of grammar
Basic physical & temporal relationships between objects
(cont’d)
Numbers & counting
Relevant Play/Behavior
Cognitively & physically capable of interacting with simple
learning products
Finds multisensory elements very appealing
Can remember past events, concentrate & focus on tasks, &
to attend to as many as 3 directions at once
Fully developed understanding of cause-and-effect
relationship
Ask lots of “why” questions
Can use 4- & 5-word sentences
Can recognize, identify, & name common objects, pictures, &
shapes
Understands “on” & “under”
Begins to understand purpose of numbers
Understands the concept of “two”
Begins to understand simple time concepts; e.g., “after”
Ask lots of “why” questions
Understands basic rules of grammar
Can use 5- & 6-word sentences
Can name most familiar objects, pictures, shapes, & colors
Understands purpose of numbers; may name a few
Understands concepts of “same” & “different”
Examples of Products
Simple electronic-teacher toys
Learning products that teach colors, shapes, picture/object
names, animals, letters & sounds, & numbers activated
by buttons or child’s hand
Matching games
Simple electronic-teacher toys
Learning products that teach colors, shapes, letters &
sounds, numbers & counting
-----------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these toys.
260
EDUCATIONAL & ACADEMIC PLAY: LEARNING PRODUCTS
Product Characteristics
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Motor Skills Required
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements
Level of Realism/Detail*
Prefer realistic-looking toys
Prefer real-world objects to plastic
replicas
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational*
Understands concepts of: color, letter &
sound recognition, letter writing,
number identification, counting,
matching quantities to numerals,
shapes, comparison, science, &
directionality
Ready for skill-specific toys such as
literacy & math
Interested in scientific exploration in
anatomy, biology, chemistry and
astronomy
Most read fluently & have mastered
simple math computation skills
Develop subject-specific preferences &
aversions
Capable of critical thinking
261
Relevant Play/Behavior
Literacy skills begin around age 5
Understand meaning of words used by
toys
Can mentally work through problems &
questions
Enjoy practicing intellectual abilities &
acquiring facts
Fine motor skills are well developed
Desires more complex & realistic-
looking learning products, rather
than plastic replicas
Ready for skill-specific toys
Literacy & math calculations are
emerging skills
9-year-olds are realistic, responsible,
self-conscious & competitive;
interested in biographies, ancient
times & other cultures
At 10, enjoy learning new things &
memorizing facts; establish
preferences for subjects
At 11, preferences for subject matter is
definite
At 12, thinking is more adult-like; able
to generalize and theorize; able to
conduct scientific experiments
Examples of Products
Simple electronic teacher toys (cont’d)
Learning products that teach colors,
shapes, letters & sounds, numbers
& counting (cont’d)
Magnets, flashlights, scales, focus-free
microscopes, magnifying glasses &
prisms
Color mixing equipment, alphabet ink
stamps
Thermometers & stethoscopes
Speedometers/pedometers
Models of solar system; rock/shell
collections or kits, animal habitats
Telescopes, binoculars
See-through clocks
Simple calculators
Functioning toy keyboards
Science experiments with few steps
Cameras with view finder function
Alphabet magnets
Abacuses
All examples from previous age group
Learning products that teach literacy,
numeracy, & science
Astronomy models
Science kits: chemistry sets, weather
forecasting kits
Microscopes with slides & dissecting
accessories
Measuring tools like rulers, protractors,
& compasses
Educational mats/crayons with content
about solar system, geography,
history
All examples from previous age group
History
Geography
Standard keyboards & calculators
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products
262
263
TECHNOLOGY PLAY
Today, children are digital natives, with technology present in their lives from infancy through
adolescence. In 2017, it was estimated that children between the ages of 0-8 years old spend
more than 2 hours each day with television, DVDs, computers, video games, and mobile devices.
It is through these devices that children are able to access games, music, programming, as well as
fully use features of toys that are compatible with these devices.
It should be noted that the 2016 American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines suggest that
children under the age of 18 months should not use screen media (i.e., mobile devices, television,
computers, or video games), except for video chatting (AAP, 2016a). Furthermore, it is
suggested that children 18-24 months should consume high-quality programming only with a
parent present. As such, parents should be prudent in regulating the amount of time that children
spend with screens. Likewise, for children ages 5-18 years old, the 2016 American Academy of
Pediatrics guidelines suggest that parents should ensure that their child exercises for an hour a
day and sleeps 8-12 hours a night, and to make sure that media use does not cut into those two
essential activities. They also suggest that children and adolescents avoid screen use before
bedtime or in the bedroom, and encourage parents to be involved in their child’s online habits to
prevent online predators.
Technology is rapidly changing. For example, between 2011 and 2017, the number of families
with a tablet jumped from 8 percent to 78 percent. In 2011, 38 percent of 0- to 8-year-olds had
used a smart mobile device, and in 2017, this statistic was 95 percent (Common Sense Media,
2017). As such, we recommend that this section be updated frequently as new technologies enter
the market.
Smart Toys & Educational Software (p.
265)
• Academic software
• Computer games
• Digital manipulatives
• Interactive pets
• Internet connections
Audiovisual Equipment (p. 277)
• CDs/mp3s of lullabies or nursery rhymes
• Children’s movies
• Children’s CD players
• Folk/cultural, pop/rock, classical music
• Karaoke machines
• Music boxes
Technology Play
264
• Portable CD Players & headphones
• Silly songs/word plays/finger plays
• Sing-a-longs
• Television shows/streaming
programming
Computer & Video Games (p. 293)
• Cartridge type consoles
• Hand held computers
• Internet games
• Mobile apps on touchscreen devices
• Software
• Traditional computer platforms
Technology Play
265
SMART TOYS & EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE
The technology boom has brought to the market a new kind of toy: an interactive, electronic,
computerized, “smart” toy. This technology has fostered a new kind of play. Smart toys are toys
that can respond to the user’s play actions through sound, voice recognition, visual effect, or
movement. This new line of toys has various levels of sophistication, but essentially a smart toy
is computer chip-based. Unlike simple battery-operated toys from past generations, smart toys
and educational software/applications interact in more creative ways with the user. They also
connect to computers through an Internet connection, or a cord right into the computer, for
increased personalization and ability to respond to the user.
Cognitive abilities, those higher-order mental processes, like reasoning and problem solving, are
present at birth. At first, understanding is gained through sensory experiences with the
environment, then later, through abstract reasoning and thought. However, even though learning
begins at birth, it does not mean that smart toys and computer software/applications are
appropriate for newborn children. Some smart toys that record the child’s voice and pass this
information along to remote servers may create security concerns and should be taken into
consideration during the product design phase. Like learning products, smart toys and
educational software/applications have anticipated uses, specific goals, and particular types of
play objectives. They are appropriate only for children who have reached an appropriate level of
cognition for such elements of play. Children younger than 2 years of age lack the physical,
cognitive, and visual abilities necessary to interact with toys or computer software/applications
in expected ways; toys for those children are discussed in Exploratory and Practice Play:
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives or Technology Play: Computer & Video Games.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of smart toys and educational software/applications:
• Sensory Elements
• Motor Skills Required
• Education
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Materials
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The order of the characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can change
with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics of
these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description of
what types of smart toys and educational software/applications are appropriate and how a
particular age group plays with these toys.
2 Years
Two-year-olds are cognitively and physically capable of interacting with simple smart toys and
software programs/applications. They have developed the ability to remember past events up to a
day, to concentrate and focus on one task for a limited time, and to attend to as many as three
directions at once. The cause-and-effect relationships they began to understand at 12 months are
now fully developed, so toys using this skill are engaging. Children in this age group can use
four- or five-word sentences. They can recognize and identify almost all common objects and
pictures, and enjoy matching or naming objects and shapes. Activities like these strengthen their
visual discrimination skills. They also can understand the physical relationships between objects,
like knowing that something is “on” or “under” another object. The purpose of numbers in
counting objects is starting to become understood, so they can now comprehend the concept of
“two.” Children in this age group are also beginning to understand simple time concepts, such as
knowing that one thing comes after another. Asking questions, generally in the form of “why,” is
a high-frequency behavior for this age group. Children in this age group find enjoyable simple
smart toys and software/applications that teach colors, shapes, animals, letters and sounds, and
numbers.
Lovable characters from video and television are popular mobile applications or software
packages for children in this age group because children in this age group have developed the
ability to remember events. Children enjoy listening to simple stories at this age, so software or
mobile applications that incorporate story lines are engaging. They also enjoy having an
experience repeatedly, as such predictability provides a sense of security. Appropriate software
or mobile applications for this age group include a great deal of music and visual engagement
opportunities. Their interest is held longer when the software/application is energetic and rich
with sensory elements, such as music, moving characters, blinking lights, and speech. Mobile
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applications that offer real-time, contingent feedback to the child are even more engaging and
can help the child learn content from the screen. Software programs and mobile applications that
have big, bright-colored animation and require simple responses from the child (e.g., using the
space bar only, or touching large areas on a touchscreen) are appropriate. Hand-eye coordination
is still developing, so software that employs a large, slow cursor or arrow indicator with a large
margin of error for pointing accurately may be usable by children in this age group. However, it
is best if children can access the software on a touchscreen device, which is easier for children to
manipulate at this age.
Children of this age are interested in animals, vehicles, and places like the beach or the zoo.
Software and applications that have heavy emphasis on traditionally formal academic areas (e.g.,
literacy and numeracy) are inappropriate, but visual discrimination skills, such as matching
colors and shapes, are age appropriate. Children in this age group are generally farsighted and
are still developing their binocular vision. Therefore, they can view more easily larger print and
pictures. Because children prefer red and yellow colors, suitable visuals for these toys are bright
and based on primary colors. Children’s attention spans are short, so appropriate visuals in
software are those that offer variety in what they are presenting the child through the use of lots
of movement, large characters, or energetic sound effects. Children stand to learn more new
skills from a character onscreen if they initially bond with that character through the use of a
plush toy (or a smart toy personalized for the child.
3 Years
Like 2-year-olds, 3-year-olds often ask “why” things are as they are. They have mastered some
basic rules of grammar and can speak in sentences of five or six words. They can name most
familiar objects and now understand the concepts of “same” and “different.” They can correctly
name some colors. Children in this age group understand the concept of counting and may know
a few numbers. Suitable smart toys, software, and mobile applications teach colors, shapes,
letters and sounds, and numbers.
Children in this age group also find lovable characters from video and television appealing, so
software packages/applications associated with those characters tend to be popular. In this age
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group, children will often prefer an item with a licensed character than an unbranded item.
Children in this age group enjoy software that incorporates story lines, and they enjoy having an
experience repeated. As with 2-year-olds, children in this age group enjoy software and
applications that allow for music and visual engagement opportunities. Their interest is held
longer when the software is energetic and rich with sensory elements, such as music, moving
characters, blinking lights, and speech. Software programs/applications that have big, brightly
colored animation and require simple responses from the child are appropriate. Programs that
can offer an immediate contingent response to the child’s input are most appealing. Hand-eye
coordination is still developing, so software that employs a large, slow cursor or arrow indicator
with a large margin of error for pointing accurately may be usable by children in this age group.
However, it is best if children can access the software on a touchscreen device, which is easier
for children to manipulate at this age. Children of this age are commonly interested in animals,
vehicles, and places like the beach or the zoo. As with younger children, software or applications
that have heavy emphasis on traditionally formal academic areas (e.g., literacy and numeracy)
are inappropriate; but visual discrimination skills, such as matching or naming colors and shapes,
are age appropriate. Learning this type of content at this age has been found to be aided by a
robot with a smart phone plugged into its head that is able to control the robot’s movements to be
more contingent to the child’s input. Three-year-olds are generally farsighted and are still
developing their binocular vision. Therefore, children in this age group can view more easily
larger print and pictures. Due to children’s limited attention spans, appropriate software visuals
offer them variety in what they present through the use of lots of movement, large characters, or
energetic sound effects.
4 Through 5 Years
Preschool children are ready for smart toys and software/applications and all the cognitive goals
and requirements they bring. Children in this age group can understand how the smart toy should
be used, and they know how to interact with the toy. However, they may not turn to the smart toy
for help with problem solving and can become irritated by inappropriate or looped feedback.
Dramatic play is at a high level, so interactive toys are appealing in that they “participate” in the
play scenario. When playing with an electronic smart dog, about two-thirds of children in this
age group attributed mental states, social report, and moral standing to the dog. Fine motor skills
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are well developed, so small pieces that come with the toy present relatively little challenge. It
should be noted that smart toys that connect to online services through computing networks
should be checked for privacy concerns. Children will blindly disclose information to technology
because they trust anthropomorphic toys, and children at this age have a poor understanding of
what privacy means.
Formal academic skills are beginning to emerge around 5 years of age, so software that pertains
to various domains of knowledge is appropriate. Concepts that are consistent with this age
group’s development include: colors, letter and sound recognition, letter writing, number
identification, counting, matching quantities to numerals, shapes, comparison, directionality
(concepts such as back/front, over/under, and in/on) and scientific thought about topics like
space or biology. However, it should be noted that when parents read books to their children at
this age, child comprehension of book content is often higher in a traditional paper format than
an electronic format on a tablet. Preschool children can mentally work through problems and
questions, so programs designed to have the user engage in logical thinking and classification are
enjoyed. Children in this age group like to practice their intellectual abilities and acquire facts.
Art-related software or applications are appealing. Drawing, coloring, and designing are largely
enjoyed. Some programs for preschoolers may be aimed at familiarizing the child with the
computer keyboard, or teaching musical concepts. Applications aimed at developing fine motor
skills among this age group, however, have proved to be less effective than practicing with real
objects that may help develop fine motor skills, such as scissors, threading, and lacing.
Preschoolers’ interests are held longer when the software/application is energetic and rich with
sensory stimulation like music, moving characters, blinking lights, contingent feedback, and
speech. Software tied to television and movie media are enjoyed. Hand-eye coordination is well
developed, so mouse use is appropriate. Like 3-year-olds, 4- and 5-year-olds are generally
farsighted and are still developing their binocular vision. Therefore, children in this age group
can view more easily larger print and pictures included in the software program. Viewing images
can be different today, because a child could use the camera on a touchscreen tablet to look at a
toy, and then “play” with the toy on a touchscreen device through a process called augmented
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reality. At this age, children are able to master this type of application and enjoy playing with the
game and will spend most of their time pointing, responding, and exploring.
6 Through 8 Years
Smart toy and educational software/application use with elementary-age children is very much the
same as it is for preschoolers. The only difference is the level of complexity. Elementary-age
children, particularly upper elementary, find realistic-looking smart toys more appealing than
those that look like plastic toys for younger children. They prefer to interact with real-world
objects rather than plastic replicas. At this age, children prefer smart toys that they can ask their
own questions because they are aware when the toy appears to be repetitive or responding with
looped audio.
Similar appeal applies to computer software and mobile device applications. The percentage of
children in this age group using the Internet is growing; so software that has Internet tie-ins is
appealing to them. Social interaction is a priority for elementary-age children; so software and
applications that include friends, such as multiplayer games, are popular. Movies and music
videos are high-interest items; so software/applications that include “trendy” and pop-culture
elements are also desirable to children in this age group. Around age 7 or 8, many children
develop a strong interest in competitive sports and games. Thus, computer sports games are
appropriate. Children in this age group also have the fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination
necessary for successfully participating in this type of software play.
Children in this age group are ready for skill-specific software programs/applications, rather than
ones that focus on broad concepts used by preschoolers. Literacy is an emerging skill during
these years, so software and applications that reinforce reading skills are appropriate. At age 6,
children are still establishing the foundation of reading; by age 8, most are reading fluently and
reading for content. Story-writing programs offer another option for developing literacy skills,
but most word processing programs are too difficult for children in this age group to use. Simple
programs/applications for learning to type are appropriate. Growing math skills include simple
addition and subtraction in the early grades, multiplication, division, and fractions in the later
grades. Software/applications aimed at working on math skills typically focus on these
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mathematical functions. In addition, logical thinking, graphics, and music-writing programs are
appropriate for the children who hold interests in these areas. If a child is interested in electronics
and computer functioning, low-complexity software programs that teach the design of computing
machines and familiarize the child with basic programming will be of interest.
9 Through 12 Years
Smart toys, mobile applications, and software that is appropriate for 6- to 9-year-olds remain
appropriate for 9- through 12-year-olds. Most children in this age group can read fluently, add,
subtract, multiply, and divide. With increasing frequency, their skills are approaching adult
levels. Nine-year-olds are interested in things beyond their environment, like people’s
biographies, ancient times, and other cultures. In addition, they are capable of independent
critical thinking. Similarly, 10-year-olds enjoy learning new things and memorizing facts. During
this time, they begin to establish definite preferences for subject matter and reading material,
largely due to subjects being explored more in-depth at school. By 11, definite preferences
emerge for some school subjects over others. This trend continues through age 12, at which point
their thinking is more adult-like. Software that expands on their specialized interests holds high
levels of appeal. Abilities to generalize and theorize are present as well.
Children in this age group can use simple word processing programs. Special subject computer
programs on spelling, geography, or political science may also interest them. High interests in
computers may be addressed through software dealing with programming languages.
272
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: SMART TOYS & EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE
Product Characteristics
2 Years
3 Years
Size of Parts
Small enough to handle, if expected to be grasped
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials*
Computers running software are electric; adult supervision is
needed
------------------------------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Software or application that requires simple responses from
the child (like large spaces for input on a tablet or using
the space bar only on a traditional computer) is
appropriate
Hand-eye coordination is still developing, so mouse use
should be kept at a minimum
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Big, brightly colored animation; preference for red & yellow
colors (primary colors)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Cause & Effect
Understanding the cause-and-effect relationship is fully
developed, so programs utilizing this skill are engaging
and provide contingent feedback to children’s input
------------------------------------------------------------------
Sensory Elements*
Interest held longer when software, application, or smart toy is
energetic & rich with sensory elements like music,
moving characters, blinking lights, & speech
Includes a great deal of music & visual engagement
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Lovable characters from video & TV are popular software and
mobile application packages
If children can bond with a character through the use of a
plush toy (or a smart toy personalized for the child)
before seeing them present content onscreen, children
stand to learn more new skills from that character
onscreen
------------------------------------------------------------------
Children will sometimes prefer an item with a media character
on it than a plain, undecorated item
Classic
273
Robotic/Smart Features
Cognitively & physically capable of interacting with simple
smart toys & software programs
------------------------------------------------------------------
Learning is aided by a robot with a smart phone plugged into
its head that is able to control the robot’s movements to
be more contingent to the child’s input
Educational*
Matching colors, shapes, & pictures
Naming objects, shapes, & pictures
Basic physical & temporal relationships between objects
Basic counting
------------------------------------------------------------------
Naming objects, shapes, pictures, & colors
------------------------------------------------------------------
Numbers & counting
Basic rules of grammar
Relevant Play/Behavior
Developed ability to remember past events, to concentrate &
focus on tasks, & to attend to as many as 3 directions at
once
Fully developed understanding of cause-and-effect
relationship
Interested in animals, small vehicle toys, & places (like
beaches & zoos)
Generally farsighted, still developing binocular vision
Short attention spans
Enjoy listening to stories
Enjoy having experiences repeated over & over
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
Enjoys repeating experiences
Understands basic rules of grammar
Understands numbers & knows a few
Examples of Products
Visual discrimination programs
Simple smart toys
Sing-along software
Software and applications that teach colors, shapes, letters &
sounds, & numbers
Matching games/software
Story-line software
Software and applications that are related to transportation,
animal, & place themes
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
Software that teaches colors, shapes, picture/object names,
letters & sounds, & numbers
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
274
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: SMART TOYS & EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE
Product Characteristics
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Computers running software are electric; adult
supervision is needed (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Fine motor skills are well developed, so small
pieces with smart toy present relatively
little challenge
Hand-eye coordination is well developed, so
mouse use is appropriate
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Understanding the cause-and-effect
relationship is fully developed, so
programs utilizing this skill are engaging
and provide contingent feedback to
children’s input (cont’d)
Sensory Elements*
Interest held longer when software, application,
or smart toy is energetic & rich with
sensory elements like music, moving
characters, blinking lights, & speech
(cont’d)
Includes a great deal of music & visual
engagement (cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Level of Realism/Detail*
A child could use the camera on a touchscreen
tablet to look at a toy, and then ‘play’ with
the toy on touchscreen device through a
process called augmented reality
Find realistic-looking toys appealing
Prefer real-world objects to plastic replicas
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Licensed theme
Lovable characters from video & TV are popular
software and mobile application packages
(cont’d)
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Classic
275
Robotic/Smart Features
Capable of understanding the way in which the
smart toy should be used & knowing how
to interact with it
Can become irritated by inappropriate or looped
feedback. Begin to attribute mental states,
social report, and moral standing to smart
toys
Smart toys that connect to online services
through computing networks should be
checked for privacy concerns. Children
will disclose information to technology
blindly because they trust
anthropomorphic toys, and children at this
age have a poor understanding of what
privacy means
Capable of physically handling the components
needed for playing software games, like
sports activities
-----------------------------------------------
Prefer smart toys that they can ask their own
questions because they are aware if the
toy appears to be repetitive or responding
with looped audio
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Educational*
Capable of concepts of: color, letter & sound
recognition, letter writing, number
identification, counting, matching
quantities to numerals, shapes,
comparison, science, & directionality
Ready for skill-specific software such as literacy
(reading & writing) & math (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, etc.)
Interested in scientific exploration in anatomy,
biology, chemistry, & astronomy
Most read fluently & master math skills
Develop subject-specific preferences &
aversions
Capable of independent, critical thinking
Relevant Play/Behavior
Literacy skills begin around 5
Understand meaning of words used by toys &
software
Can mentally work through problems &
questions
Enjoy practicing intellectual abilities & acquiring
facts
Fine motor skills are well developed
Dramatic play is at a high level
Percentage of children in this age group using
the Internet is
growing
Social interaction is a priority
Strong interest in competitive sports & games
(around age 7-8)
Desire more complex & realistic-looking
learning products, rather than plastic
replicas
Ready for skill-specific toys
Literacy & math calculations are emerging skills
9-year-olds are interested in biographies,
ancient times, & other cultures
10-year-olds enjoy learning new things &
memorizing facts; have preferences for
subjects
11-year-olds’ preferences for subject matter are
definite
12-year-olds’ thinking is more adult-like; able to
generalize &theorize; able to conduct
scientific experiments
Examples of Products
Interactive pets
Digital manipulatives
Programs that have the user engage in logical
thinking & classification.
Action based (boys) & animal/ human based
software/applications (girls)
Art related software/applications (drawing,
coloring, designing); music
Computer keyboard orientation software
Internet tie-in software/applications
Software/applications that include friends, such
as games & sports
-----------------------------------------------
Programs that teach: literacy, numeracy,
science, writing, keyboard use, & music.
Story writing programs
-----------------------------------------------
All examples for previous age group
Basic word processing programs
Software/applications extending specialized
interests
Subject-specific computer programs on
spelling, geography, or political science.
Software/applications teaching programming
languages for sports, games, & software
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products
276
Technology Play
277
AUDIOVISUAL EQUIPMENT
Children play with audiovisual equipment differently, depending on their age. The volume level,
length of the video program, visual images, language presentation, and content/theme
represented in the music or show, determine the age for whom the audio and video elements are
appropriate. Audiovisual equipment can be appropriate for children of all ages, but parents must
operate this equipment for younger children. The following discussion describes in detail how
various age groups engage in audio/video play and what types of music and visuals are
appropriate for those ages. These descriptions do not, however, apply to computer or video
games. Those types of visuals are addressed in the Computer & Video Games subcategory.
One should place primary emphasis or importance on the following characteristics when
determining the age appropriateness of audio/video equipment:
• Sensory Elements
• Length of Video or Audio Track
• Level of Realism/Detail
• Level of Complexity
The order of the above characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can
change with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics
of these toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description
of what types of audiovisual equipment are appropriate and how a particular age group plays
with this equipment.
Birth Through 3 Months, 4 Through 7 Months
Much research has been conducted to discover what newborn children can hear. Children react
with distressful behaviors to loud and sudden noises and to changes in the volume of audio/video
equipment. Young children prefer to listen to sounds that fall within the frequency range of the
human voice, so they will prefer listening to a human voice over a bell. Low tones are found to
be more effective in quieting children, whereas higher tones tend to distress them. Children
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278
especially enjoy gentle repeated rhythms and exaggerated speech sounds. For example, children
less than 3 months old enjoy “heartbeat” rhythms.
Children use their discriminative sensitivities to distinguish speech sounds as early as 1 month of
age. Between the ages of 3 and 6 months, the infant can localize sounds, babble, and make
singing sounds with adults. Children between 4 and 7 months of age can tell the difference
between a lullaby and an adult-directed song, even when the song and lullaby came from a
foreign culture. Seven-month-olds can distinguish sentence tunes, imitate sounds and sound
sequences, and make singing sounds to music. Therefore, audio equipment with soft, rhythmic,
or human voices are more appropriate than audio equipment with loud, jarring sounds. Audio
equipment that includes language that children can imitate or accompany is appropriate. Children
in this age group are attracted to Internet streaming audio, mp3s, CDs, or other audio sources of
lullabies, simple songs, rhythms or nursery rhymes that have gentle, predictable sounds and are
played at low volumes. Music boxes wound by an adult are also appropriate.
A newborn’s visual acuity is about 20/400 to 20/800, which means that a newborn sees the same
level of detail at 20 feet that a normal-vision adult can see at 400 to 800 feet. By 3 months of
age, acuity improves to around 20/100. Children younger than 1 month old have eye lenses that
do not vary in their focus on distance, a process called visual accommodation. Rather, their
lenses seem to be fixed for optimal focus at a distance of about 8 inches. Visual accommodation
improves between 1 and 3 months of age and is almost adult-like by the time children are 6
months old. Research studies also explain that children can differentiate red from green—even at
birth—and that by 2 months of age, all color receptors are functioning. By 3 months, children
prefer yellow and red to blue and green and favor patterns over solids. Due to children
developing vision capabilities and limited range of vision, video play is generally not
appropriate. However, these children will watch television and videos that are geared toward
them.
8 Through 11 Months
Eight- through 11-month-olds enjoy participating in finger-play, sing-song games, such as “So
Big,” “This Little Pig,” and “Pat-a-Cake.” Audio equipment that includes language that children
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279
can imitate or accompany is appropriate. Internet streaming audio, mp3s, CDs, and other audio
sources of lullabies, simple songs, rhythms or nursery rhymes that have gentle, predictable
sounds and are played at low volumes are appealing. Music boxes wound by an adult are also
appropriate.
12 Through 18 Months, 19 Through 23 Months
Children in this age group become increasingly mobile. Once they start walking, they start
dancing; at earlier ages, this is mostly in the form of bouncing. With time, bouncing to music
develops into running, twirling, hopping, clapping, and foot stamping. Children enjoy upbeat
music that stimulates their internal drive to move, bounce, rock, and dance. Dancing also helps
them develop physical coordination, balance, muscle strength, and dexterity. They enjoy moving
to music, which makes finger-play songs, “point-to” songs, and rhythm instruments popular.
Children in this age group’s sensitivity to sounds has now improved to adult levels. While
younger children can hear better at low than high frequencies, the auditory sensitivity of children
in this age group has improved more for higher than for lower sounds and is as good as an
adult’s. Therefore, increasing the range of auditory stimuli is appropriate during this age. Around
12 months of age, children try to sing to themselves and can listen to rhymes and jingles. As they
approach 2 years, they try to repeat nursery rhymes. Just as they were in infancy, children are
interested in sounds and repetition. Children have developed the fine motor skills necessary to
operate a hand-cranked music box, but they cannot manipulate wind-up models.
At this age, children are very interested in visual screens. They begin to learn how to use and
manipulate the buttons on a mobile touchscreen device, and depending on the size of the device,
are able to hold it in their hands to access programming. At this age, children especially enjoy
the contingent interaction of video chatting.
2 Years
Two-year-olds enjoy participating in vocal activities, particularly singing. Although their efforts
are often off-pitch, they try to sing along in nursery rhymes and songs. Audio play continues to
be a time for them to dance, swing, run, gallop, twirl, bounce, clap, play instruments, and
Technology Play: Audiovisual Equipment
280
experiment with their voices. They like to perform by doing dances, somersaults, and “tricks.”
They frequently seek attention for their dance moves by first saying, “Watch this!” They love
music and playing along with rhythm instruments. They also enjoy simple stories read from
picture books or CDs, Internet streaming audio, and mp3s.
Exposing children to a wide range of music styles is suitable to help them develop preferences
and tastes. This is also a time of growing language capabilities; so music that has lyrical rhymes,
simple rhythmic tunes, and repetitions of words and beats are appropriate to aid in their
developing skills. Nursery and other simple rhymes CDs, Internet streaming audio, and mp3s are
also appropriate. Children in this age group often listen to music and dance as a social activity;
so appropriate music is danceable (i.e., it has simple rhythms to move to), lyrical, and has a range
of high and low frequencies.
Visual play for children is very much connected to their auditory play. Appropriate programs
(available through broadcast television, streaming services, and DVDs) for this age group
include a great deal of music and movement opportunities. Mobile touchscreen devices make
access to these programs especially simple because they are portable and easy for children to
hold and operate. Through these devices, children can access a wealth of audio and visual
content through Internet streaming and subscription-based video and music services. Children
may prefer red, yellow, and other primary colors, but suitable visuals can include pastels and
other colors. Attention spans are short for children; so appropriate visual play media offer variety
in what they are presenting the child. For example, they may have the child spend some time
moving, some time listening, and some time singing. Children have developed the ability to
remember events, so media programming often focuses on lovable characters for children in this
age group. These licensed characters are often available on toy store shelves, which is highly
appealing to these children. Reading books based on these characters also becomes a favorite
form of visual play. At this age, children enjoy listening to simple stories and looking at books
by themselves, so these toys are appropriate (see Educational & Academic Play: Books).
Children at this age love to watch the same program or video repeatedly, finding the
predictability a security of their environment. They like to sing along with the show and will
frequently sing the songs to themselves.
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281
3 Years
During the preschool years, children are developing greater skills related to audiovisual play;
consequently, they have a greater range of interests than younger children. Their sense of hearing
is well developed by this age, but their ability to perceive subtle phonological distinctions in
sounds, such as consonant blends (this is necessary for mastering the phonetic combinations of
language), is not developed until about age 6 in most children. This is why words are frequently
mispronounced, even with repeated correction by adults.
Music play is beneficial for children’s developing auditory/language skills. Songs that have
rhymes and word plays help them hear words in a variety of ways, and with repeated exposure,
they can self-correct their mispronunciation. Preschool children enjoy listening to songs that
pertain to familiar events, and they enjoy hearing them repeatedly. Three-year-old children enjoy
playing with words and silly rhymes and can remember the words of many songs.
Singing, dancing, and playing instruments along with music are highly appealing activities.
Preschoolers enjoy rhythm instruments and like dressing up for dancing. In addition, their sense
of humor is becoming more refined, so silly songs are appealing. Folk songs, finger plays,
rhythmic music, music for dancing, and recorded stories about animals, adventures, and other
places are popular among this age group. Preschoolers are cognitively and physically capable of
operating simple mobile applications to play music, CD/mp3 players, and radios designed for
children. Microphones and blank CDs for personal recordings are highly appealing as well.
Children at this age will enjoy singing tunes that they already know. Although these pieces of
audio equipment are attractive and appropriate, children in this age group may use these toys
inappropriately as they experiment with and investigate their use. For example, children in this
age group might bang the toy on other surfaces, pry open compartments on the toy, or try
inserting other objects into the toys. Preschool children have the fine motor skills necessary to
manipulate wind-up music boxes, but adults must consider the appropriateness of individual
music boxes because some are fragile and more suitable for older children.
Video play for preschoolers is very similar to that of younger children. They enjoy watching
familiar programming that stars their favorite character. Three-year-olds’ attention spans have
Technology Play: Audiovisual Equipment
282
increased, and they incorporate their love of music into their visual play. Appropriate shows use
music as a primary way of communicating with these young viewers. Video programming
targeted at this age group is leaning toward more academic content like counting, vocabulary,
alphabet, and abstract concepts such as opposites. Three-year-olds enjoy repeating words to the
characters they are watching and retelling what they watched, which strengthens comprehension
and memory skills.
4 Through 5 Years
Four-year-olds can play simple singing games, can recognize and sing songs in their entirety,
show an increase in voice control, and are more able to sing on pitch than younger children.
Four-year-olds also find dramatic songs appealing and will make up songs during their play.
They love to move to music and may give dramatic performances. Five-year-olds can recite or
sing rhymes, jingles, television commercials, and other songs using a microphone; enjoy the
mastery of melodies and tunes; sing well, work together, and follow the beat of music; act out a
story in dance form and enjoy dressing up while dancing.
This age group enjoys watching familiar video programming that stars their favorite character.
Their attention span has increased, so visual things can move a little slower. Appropriate shows
use music as a primary way of communicating with these young viewers. Video programing
targeted at 4- and 5-year-olds leans more toward academic content, such as counting, vocabulary,
alphabet, and abstract concepts like opposites. Four- and five-year-olds enjoy problem-solving
questions presented during the shows. Action-based shows are highly popular, and action heroes
who are victorious over the “bad guys” and can be personified in dramatic play carry a great deal
of appeal. Video equipment related to video games is discussed in Technology Play: Computer
& Video Games.
6 Through 8 Years, 9 Through 12 Years
Elementary-age children have qualitatively different music preferences than preschoolers.
Appropriate music for children in this age group depends on their tastes, although lyric
consideration is warranted. By 6 and 7 years of age, interest shifts from nursery-rhyme, sing-a-
Technology Play: Audiovisual Equipment
283
long-type music, to pop/rock music, rhythm band activities, and singing in a group. Songs sung
in kindergarten classrooms are considered “babyish” to first graders, who are largely interested
in the latest pop star’s music or more adult-appropriate varieties of music. This trend continues,
although music tastes and preferences tend to change throughout childhood. Individual
preferences in music are the rule; some children like popular music, some like classical music,
some like folk music, some like musical comedies, some like “introduction to orchestra” music,
and some like none. They all, however, largely enjoy dancing. Because they now have the
cognitive capabilities for abstract thought, they can participate in interpretive dance, like
representing fire, storm, and birds, through their movements. Other forms of appealing music are
also connected to dance: folk songs for folk dance, songs with clapping and shouting, and fast
music for skipping, galloping, and step clapping. Music or dance lessons and exposure to
different kinds of music may affect the child’s interest.
Plastic audio players are replaced with “real” equipment, including digital music players, CD
players, headphones, and stereos. Karaoke machines with CD, microphone, and visual display
screens are highly appealing as well. The development of reading and social skills allows these
children to make use of printed lyrics shown on a screen. Digital recording and playback
capabilities for children to record their own stories, songs, instrument playing, or variations of all
three, are also appealing. Children in this age bracket are cognitively and physically capable of
operating audio equipment to make their own recordings. For general audio play, children in this
age group can operate digital or Internet-connected music players. Instruction by adults may be
necessary for more complicated systems.
Books and long recorded stories are also appealing because children at this age still enjoy being
“read” a story (see also Educational & Academic Play: Books). Listening to these recordings is
beneficial because it increases their auditory perception abilities and their auditory receptivity;
that is, being able to remember things they hear rather than see. Appealing books for them to
listen to are often based on themes. Fairy tales and make-believe are popular with the early
elementary-grade children, while topics of magic, the world, animals, mysteries, and “kids just
like them” are appealing to older elementary-grade children.
Technology Play: Audiovisual Equipment
284
As with music, video play varies according to children’s interests. The television and movie
industry provide age ratings for their products according to the age appropriateness of content;
but like music, adult supervision is necessary to determine age appropriateness. Viewing
preferences with school-age children tend to move from animation to actors and from cartoons to
humans. Content matter also changes. They enjoy watching adventure-based stories, situational
comedies/dilemmas, and characters close to their own ages. Children in this age group can
operate televisions, streaming services, and DVD player systems with proper adult instruction.
See the Technology Play: Computer & Video Games for video equipment related to video
games.
Technology Play: Audiovisual Equipment
285
286
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: AUDIOVISUAL EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Motor Skills Required
Color/Contrast
By 3 months, children prefer yellow &
red to blue & green; prefer patterns
to solids
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Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements*
Prefer sounds that fall within the
frequency range of the human
voice
Low tones are effective in quieting
babies; high tones are distressful
Enjoy gentle repeated rhythms, like
heartbeats, & exaggerated speech
sounds
React in distressful behaviors to
changes in volume & sudden loud
noises
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Can differentiate between a lullaby & an
adult-directed song (even if from
foreign culture)
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Can differentiate sentence tunes,
imitate sounds & sound sequences
Level of Realism/Detail
287
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior*
Sensitive to sounds due to fluid in
middle ear.
Capable of distinguishing speech
sounds as early as 1 mo.
Beginning to localize sounds, babble, &
make singing sounds with adults
by 3 mo.
Visual acuity at birth is 20/400-20/800;
by 3 mo. improves to around
20/100
At birth, focus is best about 8 inches
from face; by end of this period can
see several feet away
By 2 mo., all color receptors (blue, red,
& green) are functioning.
-------------------------------------------------
Fully capable of localizing sounds,
babbling, & making singing sounds
with adults.
Visual accommodation is almost adult-
like by 6 mo.
Can discriminate sentence tunes,
imitate sounds, & sound
sequences.
Makes singing sounds to music; enjoys
finger-plays & sing-songs.
Examples of Products
Audio that includes language that can
be imitated
Lullabies, simple songs, rhythms,
nursery rhymes
Gentle, predictable sounds played at
low volumes
Music boxes (wound by adults)
Video equipment not appropriate but
will watch television & videos
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* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
288
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: AUDIOVISUAL EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Loose parts that can be used in their
dancing & singing (like instruments)
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Materials
Enjoy having a variety of materials to
use in their audio play like rhythm
instruments
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Motor Skills Required
Has the fine motor skill needed to
operate a hand-cranked music box,
but not the wind-up kind
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Color/Contrast
Prefers red & yellow; visuals are bright
& based on primary colors
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements*
Enjoys upbeat music that stimulates
their internal drive to move,
bounce, rock, & dance
Hearing capabilities are at adult levels,
so increasing range of auditory
stimuli appropriate
Interested in sounds & repetition
Auditory elements need to be present in
visual play
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Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Children have developed the ability to
remember events, so they desire
toys representing characters from
video & TV programming
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Classic
289
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior*
Emerging mobility = dancing/bouncing
Enjoy finger-play & “point to” songs
Rhythm instruments are appealing to
include in play
Around 13 months they try to sing to
self
Listens to rhymes & jingles
Interested in sounds & repetition
Can physically manage hand-cranked
music box
Growing language capabilities
Visual play connected to auditory play
Capable of remembering events
Enjoy listening to simple stories &
looking at books by themselves
Want to watch the same program
repeatedly; find predictability as a
security
Begin to learn how to use and
manipulate the buttons on a mobile
touchscreen device
Dancing = bouncing, running, twirling,
hopping, clapping, foot stamping
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Likes to perform dances & somersaults
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Sings along in nursery rhymes & songs
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Enjoys vocal activities, particularly
singing
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Examples of Products
Danceable, lyrical music that has a
range of high & low frequencies
Simple recorded stories
Hand-cranked music box
Musical rhythm instruments
Sing-a-longs, nursery rhymes &
lullabies
Videos that feature “lovable” characters
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* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
290
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: AUDIOVISUAL EQUIPMENT
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Loose parts: instruments, music
boxes, portable equipment
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--------------------------------------
Materials
Motor Skills Required
Has the fine motor skills necessary
to manipulate wind up music
boxes
Physically capable of operating
CD/DVD players, digital music
players/ applications, & radios
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Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect
Sensory Elements*
Hearing is well developed
Inability to perceive subtle
phonological distinctions in
sounds, such as consonant
blends
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Able to perceive subtle phonological
distinctions
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Level of Realism/Detail*
Prefer “real” equipment & live actors
--------------------------------------
Licensed theme
Popular TV & video characters
----------------------------------------
Popular TV, video, movie, music
stars
--------------------------------------
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
291
Educational
Relevant Play/Behavior*
Enjoy singing, dancing, & playing
instruments
Sense of humor; enjoy word play &
silly rhymes
Capable of operating simple CD or
digital music players &
microphones
Enjoy repeated exposure to songs &
videos
Remember the words of many songs
Develop favorite characters in shows
Increased attention span
Repeat & retell events; enjoy
repeating words to characters
on TV/video
Understand commercial advertising
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Can play simple singing games; find
dramatic songs appealing
Can recognize, recite, & sing songs,
rhymes, TV commercials,
jingles, etc., in their entirety
Enjoy the mastery of melodies &
tunes
Show an increase in voice control &
are more capable of singing on
pitch than younger children
Make up songs during play
Love to move to music, act out a
story in dance form, & give
dramatic performances
Follow beat of music; enjoy dressing
up while dancing
Like to answer problem-solving
questions on video
programming
Shift in music interests
Capable of abstract thought, so can
perform interpretive dance
Desire “real” audio equipment.
Enjoy books on tape
Movies, TV & music videos are
appealing
Enjoy watching adventure-based
stories, situational
comedies/dilemmas, &
characters close to their own
ages
Capable of operating television,
streaming video, & DVD
systems
Enjoy dancing
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Examples of Products
Folk/cultural music
Silly songs, word plays, finger plays,
action songs
Recorded stories
Simple CD players & radios
Microphones & blank CDs, karaoke
Musical instruments, wind up music
boxes
Performance costumes
Public television shows, classic
children’s movies, cartoons
Action-based shows
----------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------
All examples in previous age group
Pop/rock, rhythm band, & group
singing music
Audio books
Portable CD/digital music players &
headphones
Interpretive dance costumes
Situational comedies, music videos,
live actors
Digital recording and playback
capabilities, for children to
record their own stories, songs,
instrument playing, or
variations of all three, are also
appealing
All examples in previous age group
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
292
Technology Play
293
COMPUTER & VIDEO GAMES
Computer-based products are very popular for adults and children, and those designed for
children are evolving quickly. Therefore, the guidelines for these particular toys may require
regular updates and include information on both current and potential applications of computer
technology. As of 2016, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggested that children
under the age of 18 months should not use screen media (i.e., mobile devices, television,
computers, or video games), except for video chatting (AAP, 2016a). Furthermore, they suggested
children 18-24 months consume high-quality media programming only with a parent, and children
older than age 2 not consume more than an hour of screen time each day. With that said,
children’s products and toys in this category for infants and toddlers will continue to exist, and as
such, we have included some guidelines here.
Computers are often used to play games, but they also can be used to produce a wide variety of
responses, such as playing digital music and films, as well as playing with a wide range of
software. All are attractive to a wide age range of children. Because computer technology is
changing rapidly, these guidelines define a computer rather broadly to cover the wide range of
potential computer uses for children. A computer consists of three basic elements: an input
device, an output device, and a processor to adjust the output based on the input, all of which can
be part of a single device like a tablet, or multiple, separate parts, like a computer with a separate
monitor, keyboard, and mouse.
An input device for a desktop or laptop computer is typically a keyboard and mouse. Input
devices for a touchscreen tablet or mobile device are the user’s fingers and hands. However,
computers are easily modifiable to adjust to nearly all users. Extremely sensitive input devices
that detect small movements exist to make computers accessible for all ages. For example, an
input device incorporated into an infant’s pacifier can detect sucking and change the output,
depending on whether the sucking has started or stopped. Input devices for computers can be in
remote locations away from the computer and can take a number of forms, like a plush animal or
figurine. For more complex activities, the input device will be more sophisticated. Keyboards,
joysticks, and handheld controllers allow for more complex input. These become more
appropriate for older children who have the physical and cognitive skills required to use them.
Technology Play: Computer & Video Games
294
The output device is typically a screen (for visual output) or speakers (for audio output). The
processor for a computer generally is based on the software or mobile applications in use on the
computer. Software and applications for children may include simple cause-and-effect activities,
games, observational programs, and educational software.
Computer-based products appeal to many ages. They are interactive and multisensory, so they
will appeal to children in a number of ways. Some scholars argue that a touch-screen tablet
device has most of the features of traditional toys (i.e., they can respond to something the child
has done, they can promote joint attention between child and parent, and they are highly
portable). The scholars also mention that a touchscreen tablet has features that traditional toys do
not usually have (i.e., they are tailorable to the child’s needs and preferences, and the child can
stop playing and easily arrive where he/she left off). Additionally, some parents view certain
computer-based products as educational, which appeals to parents who want their children
engaged in an activity that can promote learning. One should place primary emphasis or
importance on the following characteristics when determining the age appropriateness of
computer and video games:
• Sensory Elements
• Cause & Effect
• Licensed theme
• Motor Skills Required
• Educational
The order of these characteristics does not necessarily indicate priority because this can change
with age. The remaining discussion describes the relationship between the characteristics of these
toys and the characteristics of children in various age groups. This includes a description of what
types of computer and video games are appropriate and how a particular age group plays with
these games. Parental supervision is generally required for children under 3 years of age because
most computers have been designed for use by adults, not by children.
Technology Play: Computer & Video Games
295
Birth Through 3 Months
At this age, children learn mostly through reflexes, such as spontaneous kicking and arm
movements. Input devices that can detect the movements and reflex actions of this age group—
like arm and leg movements, sucking, or sounds like crying—can be used to adjust output
devices. Output for this age group could include sound systems that play recorded sounds like the
mother’s voice or other soothing sounds based on reception from the input device. Other
appropriate output could include projection screens that display slow-moving, distinct-colored
patterns in the infant’s visual range—about 8 inches from the face in the first month, and several
feet away by the end of this age period—or that focus and un-focus, depending on the actions of
the infant. The most appealing projection patterns would emphasize high-contrast colors that
children birth through 3 months of age can differentiate, such as red and green, or black and
white. Faces also are especially attractive to children in this age group. Appropriate output
devices are limited to one or two events to let children make the connection between their actions
and the response of the output device.
4 Through 7 Months
Children ages 4 through 7 months are engaging with the environment in more systematic ways.
Their movements are also much more sophisticated, which allows for a greater range of input
devices. Input devices that allow for patting, grasping, pulling, and squeezing can be appropriate
for this age. These input devices can be embedded in plush toys; such a device could adjust a
screen, turn on lights, or play recorded sounds. Mouthing is also a characteristic of this age group,
so input devices that can detect and react to mouthing are appropriate for this age group. A low
number of output events will minimize confusion about cause-and-effect relationships for
children in this age group.
8 Through 11 Months
Computers could be designed to take advantage of the increased mobility of 8 through 11 month-
old children. These children can hold and shake an input device. Devices that adjust their
response, depending on the child’s input, can challenge an infant to be persistent in trying new
action schemes on the device. Mouthing is still common at this age, so appropriate input devices
Technology Play: Computer & Video Games
296
are designed to be mouthed and may even respond to mouthing. Children of this age are
beginning to understand cause-and-effect relationships. Therefore, the number of potential output
events can be increased, so individual changes in input can be associated with individual outputs.
For example, banging may bring a sound, while shaking may cause the projection of different
patterns of colors. Children in this age group can sit unsupported and stand with support, so
projection screens can be moved to the vertical position.
12 Through 18 Months
Children 12 through 18 months of age are very curious and are interested in exploring their
environment. Most children begin walking unsupported at this age and can approach popular and
familiar objects, which could include computer projection screens. Input devices for this age
group can have multiple buttons that produce different responses when pressed. Suitable input
devices are durable and are able to withstand heavy use. Vertical screens are appropriate for this
age, as are output devices that produce sound and movement.
19 Through 23 Months
Children 19 through 23 months of age are more coordinated walkers. They have mastered cause-
and-effect responses and are very interested in coordinated multisensory responses, including
sound, movement, and visual responses. Symbolic play begins to emerge at this age, which allows
for computer outputs that have some sort of pretend element. Computer characters that talk and
act, based on inputs, are appropriate for this age. Children are becoming aware of familiar
licensed characters and will respond to them. A child at this age may also be able to respond to
simple commands from the computer. For example, if the input device is a turtle, the computer
could request, “Pat the head of the turtle.” The child could then respond to this action. Children
in this age group are also comfortable using touchscreen devices and are able to respond easily to
touch-sensitive areas on a screen.
2 Years
Two-year-old children are increasingly social, so interactive programs that can respond to
children’s actions are appropriate. Children in this age group can recognize and are attracted to
Technology Play: Computer & Video Games
297
popular characters from television and movies. They can follow simple instructions from an
interactive computer. In addition, they enjoy watching projected stories and can use input devices
to start and restart story-reading programs, mobile applications, and CD/DVDs. Children at this
age can insert CD/DVDs into desktop and laptop computers, but the program needs to self-start
because, on average, the2-year-olds will not be able to complete more than two or three simple
commands on the computer, and cannot perform sequential actions. Because children interact
with computers without concern for consequences, software for children should not allow the
child to reset computer settings. Children in this age group continue to be able to use touchscreen
tablet devices and are able to use their fingers to provide input.
3 Years
Three-year-olds are beginning to take an interest in computer games. They enjoy looking at action
on the screen. Computer games that involve reading are generally inappropriate because most 3-
year-olds cannot read. Children in this age group can use a mouse, but double- and triple-clicking
or differentiating right and left mouse-button clicking is difficult for this age group. However,
children in this age group can activate touchscreen devices with ease using their fingers as an
input device. In general, 3-year-olds cannot use a traditional keyboard to input information into
the computer, other than having the keyboard respond to all key presses in the same way. Three-
year-olds understand basic rules of games, like turn taking. However, activity games without a
specific goal are best for this age group. Painting and drawing games are popular as well. Book
reading programs and simple matching games are also appropriate for this age. Children at this
age are interested in cause-and-effect games like “what happens when I push this button.” Most
children can interact with simple academic-type games at this age, although children in this age
group do not prefer them. Games based on popular licensed characters are also appealing. Parents
prefer characters that are based on “safe harbor characters,” which are non-violent, non-sexual,
and are often based on children’s cartoons or books.
4 Through 5 Years
Four- to five-year-old children have a growing interest in computers. Four-year-olds exhibit
greater skills with the mouse and can recognize simple icons like “page turning” and “quit” to
Technology Play: Computer & Video Games
298
navigate a program. Although most 4- and 5-year-olds are developing their reading abilities, they
generally cannot use written directions. Activity games with a physical component are still very
popular with this age group. Four- and five-year-olds can use keyboards, along with a mouse, to
navigate, but this is often a slow method of input. Touchscreen devices, as input devices, continue
to be easier to use than a computer with a keyboard and mouse. Children in this age group remain
interested in simple painting and drawing programs, book-reading programs, and simple
multimedia development. Prototypical toys show children in this age group enjoy interacting with
a laptop, if a toy goes along with it as the input device (e.g., an RFID tag inserted into the toy that
would activate the images on the laptop), with children intrigued by the immediate contingency of
the plush toys to something onscreen. This age group is interested in the creative aspect of
computers, like drawing or painting; and they are also interested in the fantasy or pretend element
computers offer, like interacting with story characters. Children at this age have the fine motor
skills and visual discrimination to use simple console and handheld computer games, but they find
it difficult to coordinate movement between their two hands; they can focus on only one hand and
one aspect at the same time.
6 Through 8 Years
Computer games for children in this age group are increasingly sophisticated. Children in this age
group can use a joystick or handheld controller to avoid moving objects, and can use both nested
navigational systems and exploratory programs. Six- through 8-year-olds are very attracted to
console and handheld games. They can use both hands to use separate functions on the computer,
and they can focus on more than one element at a time. Games that have multiple players are also
popular with this age group. Children in this age group continue to enjoy creative games like
drawing and painting and multimedia creation. They enjoy technological games and narrative
games with a pretend or fantasy element, especially action characters and games based on popular
licensed characters from cartoons. They also enjoy traditional games converted to computer play,
like chess and checkers. Research suggests that comprehension of new facts at this age is the
same, regardless of whether the child played the game on a touchscreen tablet application or face-
to-face with a researcher. Children in this age group are beginning to learn to navigate the Web,
so games with Web elements may be appropriate.
Technology Play: Computer & Video Games
299
9 Through 12 Years
Nine- through 12-year-olds are interested in complex games with complex subjects. This age
group is interested in fashion, art- and music-creation games, and educational games, like
multimedia activities. They enjoy games based on popular sports and activities, like skating, and
complex fantasy games. They can navigate the Web easily, and depending on their experience,
can have very sophisticated computer skills. Children 9 through 12 years old can use adult-type
software, like word-processing and multimedia-development software.
300
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: COMPUTER & VIDEO GAMES
Product Characteristics
Birth Through 3 Months
4 Through 7 Months
8 Through 11 Months
Size of Parts
Small enough for infant to handle, if
expected to be grasped
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Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges
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Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Lightweight
Soft
Sturdy
Washable
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Motor Skills Required*
Reaching
Grasping
Mouthing/Sucking
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Hand-eye coordination
Able to sit up unsupported around 6
months
Palmar grasping
Can pass objects from hand to hand
Increased mobility (scooting, crawling,
cruising, walking)
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Practicing fine motor skills such as
grasping, pushing, pulling,
squeezing, patting, poking, &
shaking
Can grasp & shake
Emergence of neat pincer grasp
(thumb & index finger)
Color/Contrast
Brightly-colored with high contrast
(e.g., black & white, red & green)
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Cause & Effect*
Cannot fully understand cause & effect,
but can still enjoy it; prefers simple
cause-and-effect relationships
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Beginning to understand cause-and-
effect relationship; simple, clear
cause-and-effect relationships are
still best
301
Sensory Elements*
Visual
Manual
Auditory
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Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational*
Programs that claim cognitive benefits
(e.g., classical music, foreign
languages) appeal to parents
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Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very
appealing
Enjoys music
Likes to explore objects manually &
orally
At birth, focus is best about 8 inches
from face; by end of this period
can see several feet away
Learns through reflexes
Interested in faces
Able to reach & grasp at around 3
months
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Increasing interest in surroundings
Actively handles toys
Mouthing & teething
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Can hold 2 objects at once but cannot
coordinate between them
Examples of Products
Simple cause-and-effect programs
Screens with slowly moving patterns
Input devices using a movement
sensor or related to children
natural reflexes, like sucking
Music & language programs
Horizontal projections
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Push buttons that create responses
Remove input devices embedded in a
plush toy or crib toy
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Horizontal & vertical screens
Cause-and-effect programs using
either sound or visual
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Vertical screens
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
302
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: COMPUTER & VIDEO GAMES
Product Characteristics
12 Through 18 Months
19 Through 23 Months
2 Years
Size of Parts
Small enough for a toddler to handle
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Shape of Parts
Rounded, no sharp edges (cont’d)
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Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Lightweight (cont’d)
Soft (cont’d)
Sturdy (cont’d)
Washable (cont’d)
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Motor Skills Required*
Increasingly skilled at walking
Working on fine motor coordination
Can push buttons
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Can push buttons on keyboard if all
have same response
Can activate input areas on
touchscreen device
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Can move a mouse; may have trouble
clicking on small objects
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Color/Contrast
High contrast (cont’d)
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All colors
Cause & Effect*
A clear cause-and-effect relationship
(cont’d)
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Sensory Elements*
Visual (cont’d)
Manual (cont’d)
Auditory (cont’d)
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303
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme*
Awareness of familiar licensed
characters
Interest in familiar licensed characters
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Educational*
Parents are attracted to programs that
offer educational benefits such as
word recognition
Parents are attracted to programs that
encourage engagement with the
computer for educational benefits
-------------------------------------------------
Relevant Play/Behavior
Finds multisensory elements very
appealing
Like to explore objects manually &
orally (cont’d)
Increasingly curious & loves to explore
Uses all senses to explore the world:
seeing, hearing, touching, tasting,
& smelling
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Social play; aware of others’ interest in
computer
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Social play; interest in play with parents
& peers on computer
Beginning to grow beyond Exploratory
and Practice toys
Examples of Products
Simple cause-and-effect programs with
characters
Can have multiple responses to
interactions
Input device is remote from the screen
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Can use a keyboard if all keys create
the same response
Interactive programs that ask for
specific responses
Touchscreen devices
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Simple story-reading programs
-------------------------------------------------
* One of the most influential characteristics for these products.
304
TECHNOLOGY PLAY: COMPUTER & VIDEO GAMES
Product Characteristics
3 Years
4 Through 5 Years
6 Through 8 Years
9 Through 12 Years
Size of Parts
Shape of Parts
Number of Parts
Interlocking/Loose Parts
Materials
Can interact with traditional
computer equipment
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Motor Skills Required*
Can use a mouse
Can activate input areas on
touchscreen device (cont’d)
----------------------------------------
Able to right/left click and multiple
click
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Can use both hands at the same
time
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Color/Contrast
Cause & Effect*
Enjoy point & click games
----------------------------------------
Less interested in point & click
games
Sensory Elements*
Enjoy music & sound games
----------------------------------------
Bright lights, sounds
Popular music
Level of Realism/Detail
Licensed theme*
Enjoy popular cartoon characters
Interested in popular cartoon &
action characters
Interested in action characters &
sports figures
----------------------------------------
Classic
Robotic/Smart Features
Enjoy interacting with a laptop if a
toy goes along with it as the
input device instead (e.g., an
RFID tag inserted into the toy
it that would activate the
images on the laptop), with
children intrigued by the
immediate contingency of the
plush toys to something
onscreen.
305
Educational*
Parents like educational games
like letter & number
recognition
Parents like educational games
like reading & mathematics
games
Interested in learning games like
science & nature software
Can use encyclopedia software to
search for information
Comprehension of new facts
at this age is the same
regardless of whether the
child played the game on a
touchscreen tablet app or
face to face with a
researcher.
Interested in adult topics, trivia &
historical games
----------------------------------------
Relevant Play/Behavior
Understands input devices like
joysticks, handheld devices,
& computer mice
Difficulty navigating, can get lost in
a program
Cannot use reading other than
simple ABCs
Can use a keyboard to input
Able to navigate, but avoid
multiple layers of navigation
Reading is difficult
Enjoys hand held games
Has some understanding of rules
Very proficient with input devices
Can use a map to navigate a
game
Can read & follow complex
instructions
-----------------------------------------
Understands rules & game
strategy
Can play multi-player games
Can navigate the internet
Interested in sports, fantasy, &
adventure games
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Enjoys multi-player games
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Interested in hidden features of
games
Enjoys sophisticated long-term
games
Examples of Products
Drawing & painting software
Book reading programs
Exploratory non-goal-oriented
games
Simple cause-and-effect games
Games on touchscreen devices
----------------------------------------
Simple multimedia-development
software
----------------------------------------
Beginning interest in more
sophisticated goal-oriented
games
Simple hand held or console
games
----------------------------------------
Adult software like word
processing, photo, &
multimedia-processing
software
Adventure games
Sports games
Board-game software like chess &
checkers
Sophisticated handheld or console
games
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Interactive games
Simulation games
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
*One of the most influential characteristics for these products
306
307
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Product Index
323
PRODUCT INDEX
This index has been expanded to cover most major types of products and to lead the reader to the
product subcategory that most closely fits that product type. Although products may be used in a
wide variety of contexts and in different ways for multiple purposes and benefits, each
subcategory was chosen because it is most representative of how the product appeals to, and is
used by, children. Some products are cross-listed because they represent two subcategories in
significant ways.
Abacus
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Accordions
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 229
Action figures
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 89
Action figures with projectile weapons
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Action/adventure sets
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 101
Activity boxes or cubes
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 34
Activity games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 160
Activity gyms
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Air guns
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 186
Airplanes
Play Scenes and Puppets ...................................................................................................... 100
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 124
All-terrain vehicles
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 175
Product Index
324
Ant farms
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 256
Apps
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 265
Aquariums
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 256
Art easels
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Art materials (see specific kind)
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 209
Art pads filled with gel
Arts & Crafts ................................................................................................................ 210, 211
Autoharp
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 229
Automobiles
Push & Pull Toys ................................................................................................................... 48
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 171
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 121
Backgammon
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 298
Badminton equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 205
Ball guns
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 187
Ball pits
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 182
Balloons
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Balls, action
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Balls, beach
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Product Index
325
Balls, clutch
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Balls, grasping (for infants)
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Balls, light up
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 182
Balls, musical/chime
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 223
Balls, special effect
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 33
Balls, texture
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Band sets
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 228
Baseball equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 200
Basketball equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 200
Basketry materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Bathtub activity centers
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ..................................................................................... 123
Bathtub toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ..................................................................................... 123
BB guns
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 187
Bead and elastic squeeze toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 35
Bead necklaces
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 110
Bead stringing or jewelry kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 113
Product Index
326
Beaded mazes
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 35
Beads, rubber (for infants)
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Bells
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 223
Bicycles
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 171
Billiards
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 186
Binoculars
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Block printing
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Blocks
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 57
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 71
Blocks, connected by slots
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 73
Blocks, foam
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 61
Blocks, internal magnet
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 60
Blocks, robotic
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 73
Blocks, rod and spool
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 73
Blocks, soft
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 58
Blocks, wooden
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 61
Board games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 161
Product Index
327
Boats
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 122
Bongos
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 226
Bookbinding materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Books
Books ................................................................................................................................... 239
Books, electronic
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 269
Books, soft
Books ................................................................................................................................... 240
Books, story
Books ................................................................................................................................... 241
Books, vocabulary
Books ................................................................................................................................... 241
Bottles, baby doll
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ....................................................................................................... 86, 88
Bowling
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 198
Bows & arrows
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 200
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 140
Bracelets
Dress-Up-Materials .............................................................................................................. 109
Braiding materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Brick building kit
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 74
Bricks with figurines
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 72
Brooms
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Product Index
328
Bubble guns
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 38
Bubbles
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 38
Building kits, theme and movie based
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 74
Calculator
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Calligraphy sets
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Cameras
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Smart Toys and Educational Software ................................................................................ 269
Candle kits & materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Card games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 159
Cardboard craft materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 211
Carpet sweepers
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Cars, miniature
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 125
Cars, ride-on
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 171
Carving (sculpture) materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Cash registers
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
CDs & CD players
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 228
Product Index
329
Ceramic materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Chalk & chalkboards
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 213
Checkers
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 298
Chemistry sets
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 256
Chess
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 298
Chimes
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 225
Chinese checkers
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 298
Clay (modeling materials)
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 211
Clay, foam
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 38
Clay, with molds
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Climbers
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 182
Clocks
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 38
Cloth/plush toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Clothing
Dress-Up Materials ................................................................................................................ 87
Collage materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Color mixing sets
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 261
Product Index
330
Colored pencils
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Coloring books
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 213
Books ................................................................................................................................... 243
Compasses
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Computer software, educational
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 265
Computer software, entertainment
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Computers
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Console games
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 298
Construction paper
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 210
Construction sets
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 73
Construction straws
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 73
Construction tools
Tools & Props ........................................................................................................................ 81
Copper enameling materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Cosmetic kits
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 109
Cosmetic-making kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 209
Costumes
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 109
Crafts
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 209
Product Index
331
Crayons
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 210
Crayons, spherical
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 210
Crocheting materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Croquet sets
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 200
Cutlery
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Cymbals
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 228
Darts
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 186
Dice games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 160
Digital music players
Audiovisual equipment ........................................................................................................ 278
Digital recorders
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 283
Disguise kits
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 112
Dishes
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Dishwashing sets
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Disks, flying
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 197
Dissecting & slide-making kits
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 256
Diving equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Product Index
332
Doctor & nurse kits
Tools & Props ........................................................................................................................ 88
Doll accessories
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 85
Doll clothes
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 87
Doll furniture
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 89
Doll houses
Play Scenes & Puppets .......................................................................................................... 99
Doll stroller
Tools & Props ........................................................................................................................ 85
Doll-making materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Dolls
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 83
Dolls, 18-inch
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 90
Dolls, interactive
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 89
Dominoes
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 160
Dowel blocks
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 60
Drawing implements
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 209
Dress-me dolls
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 87
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 111
Dress-up accessories
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 109
Drums
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 223
Product Index
333
Drums, electronic
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 227
Dustpan/brush
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
DVDs & DVD players
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 280
Earrings
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 111
Educational mats
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 256
Electric trains
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 127
Electronic teaching toys & games
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 254
Embroidery
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Exercise equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Exploratory toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 31
Figurines, animatronic
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 89
Figurines, foldable
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 90
Figurines, talking
Dolls & Stuffed Animals ....................................................................................................... 87
Finger paint
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 210
Finger puppets
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 101
Fingernail kits
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 112
Product Index
334
Firetruck
Small Vehicles ..................................................................................................................... 123
Flap toy, trickle down
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 38
Flapping panel toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 35
Flashcards
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 253
Flashlights
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Flippers (swimming)
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Floor games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 159
Flower-making/pressing materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Flutes
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 229
Flying disks
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 197
Flying machines
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 122
Food
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Football equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 200
Forts
Play Scenes & Puppets .......................................................................................................... 99
Frontier building sets
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 72
Fun-house mirrors
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 31
Product Index
335
Games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 159
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Gear toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 36
Glitter
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Glue
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Go-carts
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 175
Goggles (swimming)
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 185
Golf equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 199
Grooming kits
Tools & Props ........................................................................................................................ 87
Guitar, plastic electronic
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 226
Guns
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 140
Gymnastic equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Hair accessories
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 109
Hammer
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Hand, glove puppets
Play Scenes & Puppets .......................................................................................................... 99
Handheld mirrors
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 111
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 33
Product Index
336
Handheld water game
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 161
Harmonicas
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 228
Helicopters
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 186
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 122
Helmets
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 171
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Hiking equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 186
Hockey
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 197
Hook and loop mitts and balls
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 199
Horseshoes
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
House cleaning sets/tools
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Ice skates
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 186
Infant toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 31
In-line skates & accessories
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Interlocking building materials
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 71
Internet streaming audio & video
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 278
Internet tie-ins & software
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 265
Product Index
337
Jack-in-the-boxes
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 34
Jewelry
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 109
Jewelry-making equipment
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 109
Jigsaw puzzles
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................. 151
Jump ropes
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Karaoke machines
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 283
Keyboards
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Keyboards, musical
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 228
Keys on ring (for infants)
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 34
Kindergarten blocks
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 60
Kitchens
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Kites & kite-making materials
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 195
Knitting kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Labyrinth games (marble maze)
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games ............................................................................ 162, 163
Lacing toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 37
Product Index
338
Lawnmowers
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Leather-work materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Life-sized dolls & accessories
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 87
Life-sized stuffed animals & dolls
Dolls & Stuffed Animals ....................................................................................................... 87
Logs for building
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 72
Looms, rubber
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Looms, yarn
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Lotto or matching games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 160
Low-riders
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 171
Magnetic art boards
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 213
Magnetic letters & numbers
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Magnets & iron filings
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Magnifying glasses
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Make-up sets
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 112
Manicure sets
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 112
Manipulative panels
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 33
Product Index
339
Manipulatives (handheld for infants)
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 31
Marble raceways
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................... 161, 162, 163
Marbles
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Marionettes
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 102
Markers
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 209
Markers, chunky
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 210
Matching games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 160
Mazes
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 161
Mechanical swings
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 182
Medical kits
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Metal-work & materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Mice
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 297
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 269
Microscopes
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 256
Miniature worlds
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 100
Mobile applications
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 281
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 297
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 266
Product Index
340
Mobiles
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Model kits
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 74
Modeling kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 221
Money
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Mops
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Mosaic blocks & tiles
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Motorcycles
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 122
Motorized building kits
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 74
Mp3s
Audiovisual Equipmnet ....................................................................................................... 278
Music boxes
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 278
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 228
Music symbol book with accompanying instrument
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 227
Necklaces
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 110
Needlepoint kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Nesting toys
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 254
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 36
Nurse & doctor kits
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Product Index
341
Outdoor play equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Paint, brushes, & containers
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 211
Paper, art & construction
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 210
Paper, pre-gummed
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Papier-mâché materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Parachutes
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 183
Paste
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Pastels
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Pastry sets
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Pattern recognition games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 162
Pedometers
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 255
Peg dolls/people
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 86
Peg shape sorters
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................... 37
Photography equipment
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Pianos
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 228
Pick-up-sticks
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 161
Product Index
342
Pillow blocks
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 58
Plane
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 124
Plaster of Paris
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Plastic bricks
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 72
Plastic pop beads
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ..................................................................................... 212
Play mats
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Play scenes & stages
Play Scenes & Puppets .......................................................................................................... 99
Playground equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 183
Playhouses
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 101
Plush dolls & toys
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 83
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Pom-pons
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Pools, wading
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 191
Pottery making activities
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Pottery wheels
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Pounding, hammering toys
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Press and guess toys
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 253
Product Index
343
Printing sets & equipment
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Prisms
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Programs (software)
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 265
Projectile toys
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Protractors
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 261
Puppet theaters
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 102
Puppets
Play Scenes & Puppets .......................................................................................................... 99
Puppets, rod
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 102
Push & pull toys
Push & Pull Toys ................................................................................................................... 45
Puzzles
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................. 149
Puzzles, jigsaw
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................. 151
Puzzles, knob
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................. 151
Puzzles, magnetic
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................. 151
Puzzles, noisemaking
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................. 150
Racquet sports equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 199
Radios
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 281
Product Index
344
Rag dolls
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 93
Rakes
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Rattles & shakers
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 223
Recorder
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 229
Rhythm instruments
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 224
Ribbons (for movement)
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Ride-on toys
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 171
Rings, interlocking
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 33
Rings, teething
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 34
Robots
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 89
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 268
Rockets
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 187
Rocking horses
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 172
Roller skates
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Roly-poly toys (for infants)
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 34
Rope ladders
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Product Index
345
Rulers
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 261
Sand and molds
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 37
Sandbox tools
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Scales (for weighing)
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Scarves
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 110
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Science kits
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 261
Scissors
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 211
Scooters
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 173
Scrapbooks
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Sewing cards & kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 213
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 111
Sewing machines
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Shopping carts
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Shovels
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Skateboards
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 174
Skates & accessories
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Product Index
346
Sketch pads
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Sketching kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Ski equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 193
Sleds
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Slides
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 182
Smart toys
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 265
Snorkels
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Soap making kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 215
Soccer equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 199
Software
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Smart Toys & Educational Software ................................................................................... 265
Sorting toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 34
Spool knitting kits
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 113
Sport centers
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 198
Sports equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 197
Sprinklers
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Squeeze & squeak toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 41
Product Index
347
Stacking toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 34
Stamps (ink)
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 213
Stencils
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Stethoscopes
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Sticker pads
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Stickers
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 212
Stoves
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Strategy games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 162
String puppets
Play Scenes & Puppets ........................................................................................................ 102
Stringing toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 37
Stroller, baby doll
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 85
Stuffed animals
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 84
Stuffed blocks
Blocks .................................................................................................................................... 59
Stuffed dolls
Dolls & Stuffed Toys ............................................................................................................. 83
Suction cup blocks
Interlocking Building Materials ............................................................................................. 72
SUVs
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 175
Product Index
348
Swimming, pools, & accessories
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Swings
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 182
Table games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 159
Table hockey
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 186
Table tennis
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 186
Tambourines
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 223
Tee-ball equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 197
Teething toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Telephones
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 135
Telescopes
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Tennis equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 199
Terrariums
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 256
Thermometers
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 255
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Three-dimensional mazes
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games ............................................................................ 162, 163
Three-dimensional puzzles
Puzzles ................................................................................................................................. 152
Touchscreen devices
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Product Index
349
Touchscreen tablets
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Trading cards
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 163
Train tracks & accessories
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 127
Trains
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 122
Trampolines
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Triangles (musical)
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 227
Tricycles
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 173
Trivia games
Card, Floor, Board, & Table Games .................................................................................... 163
Trowels
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Trucks
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 174
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 122
Trucks, moving and talking
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 122
Tub toys
Mirrors, Mobiles, & Manipulatives ....................................................................................... 32
Tunnels
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Ukuleles
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 228
Umbrellas
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Vehicle sets with figurines
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 124
Product Index
350
Vehicles
Push and Pull Toys ................................................................................................................ 45
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 171
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 121
Video chatting
Audiovisual Equipment ....................................................................................................... 279
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Video Games
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Violins
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 229
Virtual reality games & accessories
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 293
Visual displays for infants
Computer & Video Games .................................................................................................. 295
Volleyball equipment
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 200
Wagons
Ride-On Toys ....................................................................................................................... 173
Wands
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Water guns
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Water play equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 184
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 138
Water rockets
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Water sports equipment
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 185
Water torpedoes
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Water wings
Recreational Equipment ....................................................................................................... 181
Product Index
351
Watercolors
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 213
Weather forecasting equipment
Learning Products ................................................................................................................ 261
Weaving kits & materials
Arts & Crafts ........................................................................................................................ 214
Weightlifting equipment
Recreational equipment ....................................................................................................... 186
Wheelbarrows
Push & Pull Toys ................................................................................................................... 48
Tools & Props ...................................................................................................................... 136
Whistles
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 226
Wigs
Dress-Up Materials .............................................................................................................. 111
Wind-up toys
Small Vehicle Toys .............................................................................................................. 124
Xylophone
Musical Instruments ............................................................................................................. 225
Yoyos
Sports Equipment ................................................................................................................. 199
