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Divorce and its effects on the development of children Divorce and its effects on the development of children
Lisa Barron
University of Northern Iowa
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Divorce and its effects on the development of children Divorce and its effects on the development of children
Abstract Abstract
More than likely, children are not part of the decision making when it comes to divorce. They are the
innocent bystanders of divorce that have no choice but to become an integral part of an adult issue. There
are no rules books with speci<c directions to depend on when it comes to children understanding the
separation of their parents. Children of divorce need resources, guidance, and more than ever,
commitment and consistency from signi<cant people in their lives. Divorce has no boundaries and carries
no prejudice. Divorce effects all ages, ethnicities, races, gender, and socio-economic levels. In the earlier
part of the 20th century, the nuclear family could be de<ned as father, mother, and children, all biological
of course. The 21st century has produced a much more complex family structure that encompasses
anything from single parent households to step-families. Researchers have been studying these dynamic
changes for generations attempting to understand the effects on children. Over the last several years,
researchers have found that the factors involved in the pre and post divorce relationship are just as
detrimental to the children as the divorce itself. This paper will attempt to educate its readers on the wide
spectrum of factors affecting children involved in divorce. Historical statistics will be highlighted along
with implications to children at different developmental milestones.
This open access graduate research paper is available at UNI ScholarWorks: https://scholarworks.uni.edu/grp/132
DIVORCE AND ITS EFFECTS
ON
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
A Research Paper
Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment
of
the Requirements for the Degree
Masters
of
Arts
Lisa Barron
University
of
Northern
Iowa
May 2010
DIVORCE
AND
ITS EFFECTS
ON
THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF
CHILDREN
A Research Paper
Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment
Of
the Requirements for the Degree
Master
of
Arts
Dr. Victoria Robinson, Department Chair
of
Educational
Leadership, Counseling, Postsecondary Education
Lisa Barron
University
of
Northern
Iowa
May 2010
Divorce and its Effects on Childhood Development 1
Running Head: DIVORCE AND ITS EFFECTS ON CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Divorce and its Effects on the Development
of
Children
Lisa Barron
University
of
Northern Iowa
Divorce and its Effects
on
Childhood Development 2
Abstract
More than likely, children are not part
of
the decision making when it comes to
divorce. They are the innocent bystanders
of
divorce that have no choice but to become
an integral part
of
an adult issue. There are no rules books with specific directions to
depend
on
when it comes to children understanding the separation
of
their parents.
Children
of
divorce need resources, guidance, and more than ever, commitment and
consistency from significant people in their lives. Divorce has no boundaries and carries
no prejudice. Divorce effects all ages, ethnicities, races, gender, and socio-economic
levels.
In
the earlier part
of
the 20
th
century, the nuclear family could be defined as father,
mother, and children, all biological
of
course. The
21
st
century has produced a much
more complex family structure that encompasses anything from single parent households
to step-families. Researchers have been studying these dynamic changes for generations
attempting to understand the effects
on
children. Over the last several years, researchers
have found that the factors involved in the pre and post divorce relationship are
just
as
detrimental to the children as the divorce itself. This paper will attempt to educate its
readers
on
the wide spectrum
of
factors affecting children involved in divorce. Historical
statistics will be highlighted along with implications to children at different
developmental milestones.
Divorce and its Effects
on
Childhood Development 3
Historical Perspectives
Statistics. It
may
be unimaginable to many, but there was a time in the United
States, when married couples had no legal way
of
divorcing. South Carolinians would
have to wait until 1949
in
order to do so while Maryland was granting divorces in 1907
(Historical Divorce Rate Statistics, 2009). Since that time this country has witnessed a
steady increase with the highest numbers reported in the
1970's
(Historical Divorce Rate
Statistics, 2009). Many believe this is due to the
'no
fault' legislation that was adopted
into law during this decade.
By
the year 2000, the U.S. Census Bureau reported the
divorce rate at 4,539
per
100,000 for
men
and 6,577 per 100,000 for women (Historical
Divorce Rate Statistics, 2009). Only 63%
of
American children grow up with both
biological parents (U.S. Divorce Statistics, 2009). As
of
2003, 43.7%
of
mothers and
56.2%
of
fathers were either divorced
or
separated (U.S. Divorce Statistics, 2009).
Finally, in 2003, it is reported that 7.8 million Americans paid roughly $40 billion in
child
or
spousal support, with 84%
of
these male (U.S. Divorce Statistics, 2009).
Family formation change. Beyond the historical father, mother, biological
children definitions, many
new
family formations have erupted. Non-marital births have
shown an increase over the years with 36%
of
U.S. children in 2004 being born to
unmarried mothers (Amato & Maynard 2007). Many economists sight the major cause in
the rise
of
child poverty in this country is in the decline
of
married-couple households
(Amato & Maynard, 2007). Another increase being seen is the number
of
children being
born to cohabitating biological couples (Amato, 2005). Unfortunately some
of
the
grimmest statistics in separation are with this particular population. One study found that
31
%
of
cohabiting couples had broken up before the child's fifth birthday (Amato, 2005).
Divorce and its Effects on Childhood Development 4
Many are familiar with stepfamilies and the dynamics that come with this particular
family structure. Most have one biological parent and the other has no biological
relationship to the child. Studies across generations have indicated the problems children
exhibit living in step-families compared to those living with biological married parents
(Amato, 2005). These changes in family dynamics and the new definitions
of
family
structures come with it new research into the effects
of
the child's chances
of
their own
successful marriage. Research has shown when one partner is a child
of
divorce; the
chances
of
that couple divorcing are double (Fincham & Stanley, 2002). When both
partners are children
of
divorce, the chances
of
divorce triple. With these stated changes
in the family formation, and the increase rates
of
divorce, the United States has become
less stigmatized by divorce, and more accepting
of
diverse family forms, which can be
even more detrimental for the children (Lansford, 2009).
Effects
on
children
Current findings. Researchers continue to study divorce in order to understand the
impact that it can have
on
the child. Many are seeking to find specific factors that
implicate potentially damaging outcomes. In the 1970's many researchers were looking
only at the divorce itself as the main cause for future problems in children. As time went
on, more and more research has begun to analyze the implications
of
pre-and post divorce
characteristics
of
the family (Lansford, 2009). Some research shows it is much less about
divorce and more about parental interaction. Inter parental conflict is one
of
the newest
factors being researched today. Couples who have both high conflict relations before and
after divorce tend to have the greatest negative impact on children (Fincham& Stanley
2002). Amato (2005) went on to find that interparental conflict is a direct stressor for
Divorce and its Effects on Childhood Development 5
children, effecting attachment and emotional insecurity. Children who are in these
confliction environments tend to show more emotional issues later in life.
There have also been studies showing that ethnicity effects how children respond
to divorce. Amato (2005) found that although African Americans are shown to have
higher rates
of
non-marital births, and strong martial conflict, the children are less
affected by living in single parent households than white children. One reason for this
could be that many families that are African American have a higher statistic
of
single
parent homes, so in a way this may not be felt as something 'dysfunctional' to this
culture. Another important factor affecting children from divorced families is the support
system from other family members and friends (Temk:e, 2009). Adult family and friends
along with teachers and mentors can provide emotional support to children. They can
have a positive impact on children who are transitioning away from the nuclear family by
communicating with them and being there as role models (Temke, 2009). By doing so,
the child can continue to have supported, consistent stability during a tumultuous time in
their life.
Social, emotional, cognitive effects. Research data has stayed consistent over time
when focusing
on
the effects
of
the divorced child's emotional, social, and cognitive
well-being, including academic problems, depression, anxiety, isolation, and rebellion.
Professionals agree that two-parent families have a higher standard
of
living, share more
cooperative discipline, and are emotionally closer to their children (Amato, 2005). In
1991, Amato and Keith generated the most widely sourced meta-analysis, summarizing
the results
of
ninety-three studies published from the 1960's through 1980's with
confirmation that children from divorced parents were worse
off
than those with married
Divorce and its Effects on Childhood Development 6
parents. Through different psychological testing, the study covered areas
of
academics,
conduct behaviors, psychological well being, self-esteem and peer relations (Amato,
2005). Amato (2001) furthered his research with another meta-analysis based on sixty-
seven studies that were conducted in the 1990's and again found that children from
divorced parents scored lower on measures
of
well-being than children from married
homes.
It
is important to highlight findings that shed positive findings correlating to
divorce, keeping in mind that these studies are not typical. Brenner and Hyde (2006)
found that there was no significant differences between divorced and intact mothers when
it came to emotional interaction, scaffolding and proximal development with their child,
while another study conducted by Barnes, Burt, Iacono, and McGue (2008) suggested
that the experience
of
the divorce has more
of
an impact on adolescent delinquency than
common genes themselves, which agrees with most other research
of
the strong
implications
of
divorce
on
children. With the statistics
of
divorce likely to stay stable or
even increase with each generation, many researchers are focusing on strategies to help
children cope.
There seems to be consensus among many that depending upon the age
of
the
child, and the corresponding developmental stages, children will be affected by divorce
differently. Pryor and Rodgers (2001) acknowledged that no one factor
of
model can
account for the range
of
effects in children
of
divorce.
It
is still a mystery to some that
many children
of
divorce who face the same risk factors end up with different degrees
of
success. Some
of
those risk factors include the death
of
a parent, separation in early
childhood, amount
of
contact with nonresidential parent, maternal or paternal loss, and
outcomes before and after separation (Pryor & Rodgers, 2001). The above risk factors
Divorce and its Effects on Childhood Development 7
can carry long term effects
on
children.
If
a child has had close contact with his
or
her
father for the first several years
of
his or her life, and then a divorce results and that child
no longer has contact with the father, it can greatly impact the
child's
emotional well-
being. Along with these risk factors other variables have to
be
considered. Those include
age
of
child
at
time
of
divorce, gender, race, socio-economic status, interparental conflict,
and demographic changes (Temke, 2009). DeBord (2009) further emphasizes that
communication levels with the children, the ease
of
adjustment to the divorce, parenting
skills, and parental remarriage are also strong indicators as to the level
of
adjustment for
the child.
Signs
and
symptoms. DeBord (2009) and Tempke (2009) both attempt to highlight
appropriate risk factors and common interventions parents
can
utilize with their children.
Parents
may
think that their infant will not be affected
by
divorce. Unfortunately infants
often react to parental stress showing signs
of
increased mood and decreased appetite.
Some researchers hypothesize that both infants and toddlers will have long term effects
of
the divorce that will not be evident until their later years, including abandonment
issues and emotional attachment issues (Butler, Douglas, Murch, Robinson, & Scanlan,
2003). Toddlers also sense conflict and change. Temke (2009) reported that many
toddlers believe they have caused their parents' divorce. Toddlers can express emotional
symptoms
of
depression, anger, moodiness and aggression (Temke, 2009). DeBord
(2009) goes
on
to state that many toddlers understand that a parent has moved away but
does not understand why. This is where parent communication is very important; being
honest with the child, explaining the separation
or
divorce in
an
age-appropriate fashion.
Parents need to stick to routines, spend time with the child, and welcome other family
Divorce and its Effects on Childhood Development 8
members to provide care and assurance (DeBord, 2009). School aged children are better
able to understand grown up problems. More than likely they have a friend or someone
they know who has experienced divorce (Debord, 2009). Often times this age group is in
emotional pain over their parent's separation. Some may be still too young to understand
how
to control these emotions. They may experience social embarrassment, anger,
divided loyalty issues, false hope that their parents will reconcile, and somatic symptoms
(Temke, 2009). Parents can support their child in keeping lines
of
communication open,
seek professional help
if
signs
of
depression become apparent, plan special time together,
keep daily routines, and encourage expressions
of
all emotions (DeBord, 2009).
Teenagers also face many emotional symptoms ranging from anger, fear, and loneliness
to depression and guilt. Many teens have a hard time accepting the divorce. Knowing the
physiological changes occurring during adolescence, including increase levels
of
testosterone
or
estrogen, it is no wonder than this age group can be critically affected by
major life changes. DeBord (2009) reports teenagers feeling disillusioned, abandoned,
highly stressed, which may lead to high-risk behaviors including skipping school, drugs,
alcohol, and shoplifting. The teenager also can take
on
adult like roles, feeling like they
need to help with finances and help to take care
of
younger siblings. Others worry that
they will never be able to trust marriage themselves, and may choose to cut one or both
parents out
of
their lives due to anger and the fear
of
the unknown (Temke, 2009).
Parents' can help their teenager feel more in control
by
talking to them about the divorce,
maintaining rules
of
the household and reminding the child that they had nothing to do
with the divorce and assure them that they are
just
as loved as they were before the
separation (Temke, 2009). It is important for parents to remember not to use their
Divorce and its Effects
on
Childhood Development 9
teenager
as
a replacement partner, keeping in
mind
that
even
though
the child is older, he
or
she is
in
no position to be told personal information regarding the details
of
the divorce
or
feel
put
in the middle (DeBord, 2009). Research has
shown
that boys
of
divorce
show
an increased risk
of
social development over girls (Amato, 2005). Boys
have
been shown
to have higher incidences
of
aggression and social misconduct (Barnes,
Burt
, Iacono &
McGee, 2008). Another important factor for all parents
to
keep
in
mind is the importance
of
the non-custodial
parent
, typically the father (Pryor & Rodgers, 2001 ). Research
has
shown that continuing a strong bond with the father
or
non-custodial parent is important
for keeping children emotionally connected to
both
parents. Unfortunately, non-custodial
parents have
been
shown
to have little contact with their children after a divorce has
occurred.
Hughes
(2005) reports
that
on
average, nonresidential fathers see their
biological offspring only 4 times
per
month
following separation and divorce. Hughes
(2005) goes
on
to state that
20%
of
children
of
divorce have
no
contact with their fathers
2-3 years after
the
divorce.
Conclusion
In
conclusion, there
are
without a doubt several negative implications for children
of
divorced families. Pryor
and
Rodgers (2001) utilized a quote from a 1998 newspaper
stating,
"Only
fanatics
can
continue
to
deny
that divorce has harmful effects
on
children
.....
.if
this were a medical disease,
it
would
prompt
demands for a national
campaign
of
eradication." Since the 1970's
when
divorce rates were
at
their
highest,
researchers have
been
working diligently to understand its affects
on
our
most
precious
commodity;
our
children.
The
results are grim.
Not
only are statistics
of
divorce
increasing
in
this country,
but
the effects
on
our
children are
both
disturbing and
Divorce and its Effects
on
Childhood Development 10
repetitive. Children
of
divorce have higher rates
of
emotional instability, academic
problems, social conflicts, and cognitive disadvantages compared to those children from
continuously married parents (Amato, 2005). The rates
of
divorce for children who grow
up
to marry are higher than those children who come from continuously married couples
(Amato & Booth, 2001). Adults who report that their parents were unhappily married
tend to report a high number
of
problems and issues in their
own
marriage (Amato &
Booth, 2001). Recent studies have focused
on
attachment issues in children. One does not
have to look far to understand the correlations between attachment and children
of
divorce. Without the emotional bonding that is so important during the first years
of
a
child's
life, endless years
of
attachment issues may prevail into adulthood maladjustment.
Some researchers have attempted to find positive interventions for couples considering
divorce (Amato & Maynard, 2007). Some professionals propose policy changes including
mandatory counseling for couples filing for divorce while others hypothesize school
prevention classes where abstinence and the promotion
of
marriage are
key
components
(Amato
& Maynard, 2007). Although some
of
these preventative measures are already
being utilized today, it seems too early to warrant any positive outcomes. In the
meantime, the statistics
of
divorce continue to rise, and the children involved continue to
suffer its ill effects.
Divorce and its Effects
on
Childhood Development
11
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P.R. (2001). Children
of
divorce
in
the
1990's:
An
update
of
the Amato and
Keith (1991) meta-analysis.
Journal
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Family Psychology, 15(3), 355-370.
Amato, P.R. (2005).
The
impact
of
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on
the cognitive, social, and
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next
generation. Journal
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the Future
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Children,
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& Maynard R.A. (2007). Decreasing nonmarital births
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12
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